Lidar with streak-tube imaging, including hazard detection in marine applications; related optics

ABSTRACT

The system and method relate to detection of objects that are submerged, or partially submerged (e. g. floating), relative to a water surface. One aspect of the invention emits LIDAR fan-beam pulses and analyzes return-pulse portions to determine water-surface orientations and derive submerged-object images corrected for refractive distortion. Another defines simulated images of submerged objects as seen through waves in a water surface, prepares an algorithm for applying a three-dimensional image of the water surface in refractive correction of LIDAR imaging through waves-and also models application of the algorithm to the images, and finally specifies the LIDAR-system optics. Yet another emits nearly horizontal pulses to illuminate small exposed objects at tens of kilometers, detects reflected portions and images successive such portions with a streak-tube subsystem. Still others make special provisions for airborne objects.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates generally to optoelectronic systems for imagingobjects from an elevated or slightly elevated observing instrument. Suchimaging systems include but are not limited to mast-mounted systems forobtaining warning of shallow hazards ahead of a water craft,aircraft-carrier landing aids, and refinements in airborne imagingplatforms. A related aspect of the invention provides intensityequalization across a fan-shaped probe beam, and has general industrialapplications.

2. Related Art

Shallow-angle marine observation systems—A particular difficulty of allmarine observational systems, even visual systems, is the problem ofinterference by the water surface. Reflections at the surface, whetherof ambient radiation or of probe beams, tend to be confused with signalsor signatures of the hazards or other objects of interest.

Another noteworthy problem with such systems is the limited range ofknown apparatus and methods. In the past, short range has been seen asessentially an inherent limitation of mast-mounted or otheronly-slightly-elevated equipment.

It is known to use light detection and ranging (“LIDAR”) for suchpurposes. FIG. 1 illustrates an experimental deployment shown byAnderson, Howarth and Mooradian (“Grazing Angle LIDAR for Detection ofShallow Submerged Objects”, Proc. International Conference on Lasers,1978).

Anderson et al. did a pier-based experiment with a single-pixel PMTdetector and no scanner. Basically they verified the laws of physics,namely (1) Snell's Law predicting deflection of the light into thewater, and (2) the laws of radiative transfer—the light detection andranging or “LIDAR” equation—predicting enough returning photons tosupport a detection. There was no suggestion of an entirely practicalimplementation for such an idea.

More specifically, the Anderson paper describes use of grazing-incidenceLIDAR for detection of shallow objects. The group detected a target ofdiameter about 80 centimeters (2½ feet), to depths of nearly 5 meters(15 feet) at a range of 130 meters (400 feet) from a pier.

The experimental demonstration used a narrow-beam LIDAR and aphotomultiplier-tube detector. The laser L (FIG. 1) and receiver R weremounted in a hut-like enclosure E on a pier structure S in the ocean, atdistance F of about 330 m (1100 feet) forward from the beach.

The LIDAR transceiver L-R was at a height H of about 13 m (40 feet)above the ocean surface O. At the pier the benthic depth D1 was some 5 m(15 feet) and at the target T the depth D2 was about 8 m (25 feet).

A winch W on the pier operated a chain CH around a first pulley P1,fixed by a clamp CL to the pier S. The chain extended out to thefloating target T via a second pulley P2, which was tethered to ananchor A (in the form of concrete-filled 55-gallon drums)—thus enablingsome variation in range R as desired, the nominal value of the range Rbeing 120 m (400 feet). The severely constrained range associated withthese experiments is exemplary of the limitations of shallow-angleobject surveillance heretofore.

We are aware of these patents for mast-mounted television cameras usedfor imaging objects from slightly elevated positions: U.S. Pat. Nos.3,380,358 and 3,895,388. Pertinent LIDAR-related patents include:

U.S. Pat. No. 4,862,257 of Ulich,

U.S. Pat. No. 4,920,412 of Gerdt,

U.S. Pat. No. 5,013,917 of Ulich

U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,810 of Keeler,

U.S. Pat. No. 5,091,778 of Keeler,

U.S. Pat. No. 5,257,085 of Ulich,

U.S. Pat. No. 5,450,125 of Ulich,

U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,589 of Ulich and

U.S. Pat. No.5,506,616 of Scheps.

The most relevant of these are the last three Ulich patents mentioned.

Ulich et al. use a streak tube for time-resolved fluorescence(wavelength vs. time), not imaging (angle vs. time). In fact, their textparticularly cites use of a streak tube in a nonimaging mode.Furthermore they use a laser blocking filter to specifically reject thein-band response.

Thus the prior art fails to deal incisively, or effectively, with thepreviously mentioned problems of interference arising from surfacereflection. Utilization of a slit by the Ulich group is for spectraldispersion, not imaging.

The '589 Ulich patent, “Imaging LIDAR System”, makes one reference to aship-based application, but does not develop the idea further. Thesystem is described only with reference to gated, intensified cameras.

Airborne-hazard alert for water craft—LIDAR is also usable for obtaininginformation about airborne objects, whether threatening hostile objectsor otherwise. A separate system for such purposes, however, is costlyand occupies significant space in the command center of a water craft.

Aircraft-carrier operations—In addition to detection of floating andairborne obstacles (e. g. mines and other hazards), anothermarine-related problem that would benefit from visibility aids is thatof aircraft-carrier landing. This problem is particularly acute atnight, and in fog or other turbid-atmosphere conditions.

The difficulty of such operations is compounded by the high speedsinvolved, the fact that not only the aircraft but also the carrier is inmotion. A further complication sometimes is the need for a degree ofdiscreet or covert character in the traffic. Radio guidance may be oflimited practicality in such circumstances.

Airborne surveillance—Still another use of LIDAR systems that has beendeveloped heretofore is airborne surveillance of objects submerged inthe ocean or in other bodies of water. U.S. Pat. No. 5,467,122—commonlyowned with the present document—sets forth many details of asurveillance system that is particularly aimed at monitoring relativelylarge areas of the ocean.

In that system, typically imaging is limited to detection from altitudesof at least 160 m (500 feet) and looking straight down into the waterwith the center of the probe beam. Still, there is some off-axisdetection for positions well away from the track of the airborneplatform.

Wave noise, and distortion: Wave noise and the resultant imagedistortion represent one of the severest limitations for airbornesurveillance, even in the clearest ocean waters. These concerns have notbeen adequately addressed with existing airborne LIDAR systems.According to a comparative-evaluation field test in 1997,object-classification capability and the ability to reject false alarmsin hazard detection have yet to be achieved to the satisfaction of theUnited States government.

Both the shapes and the positions of submerged objects are distorted byuncorrelated refractions of different parts of the probe/return beam,due to irregularity of the water surface. Heretofore no effort has beendirected to overcoming either the positional error or the relativevagueness of object shapes obtained with this technology.

Uncertainties in coverage: Current systems also provide inadequateinformation about the fraction of the undersea environment that isactually being screened. The root problem is that wave focusing anddefocusing of rays from a LIDAR system cause gaps in the coverage atdifferent depths.

That is to say, inherently certain volumes of water receive and reflectvery little light, which means that objects within those volumes cannotbe detected. The difficulty here is that existing systems cannotaccurately estimate the extent of these effects at different depths, andtherefore cannot generate good area-coverage estimates at those depths.

There is no reliable measurement of how well—in particular, howuniformly—the system is illuminating and imaging each layer of water.Such systems resort to a statistical model, based on a single estimateof sea state, to estimate how many passes over the same patch of waterare necessary to assure proper coverage.

This model is hard to validate—and the estimate of sea state may or maynot be accurate or timely. Errors in the sea-state estimate forcepresent systems to make either too many passes over the same area, whichresults in poor effective area-coverage rates, or too few passes, whichmay leave the area inadequately sampled and so unsafe for ship transit.

Refractive-correction: A hitherto unrelated technology is reported inanother coowned patent, U.S. Pat. No. 5,528,493—which teaches use ofobservations from below an irregular water surface, i. e. by stationaryor very slowly moving submerged apparatus. This latter patent refinesimages collected in such observations by correcting for effects ofrefraction at each point of the surface.

No effort heretofore has been directed to adapting this technology toeither surveillance of the sea from either aircraft or surface watercraft. This method requires a height map of the ocean-wave surface—tofind all the refraction directions and so solve Snell's law for eachspot.

To obtain such a height map, preferred forms of the patented methoddepend in turn upon iterative determination of the dynamic surfacecondition. These forms of the method therefore rely heavily upon theessentially stationary character of the observing platform, and areaccordingly too slow for use with fixed-wing surveillance aircraft.

Since the method of the '493 patent is able to determine only bearing,not range—from any single observation apparatus—image reconstruction isimpossible from such a single apparatus. Image reconstructionaccordingly requires data from two observation subsystems separated by aknown baseline and working in tandem.

Reconstruction is then accomplished through the sort of dual-stationbaseline triangulation that is familiar in surveying. Although therequirement of a long baseline is acceptable for waterborne observationplatforms that are very large, and so intrinsically can provide a longbaseline, such a requirement is undesirable for airborne surveillance asit calls for a very large aircraft operating at very low altitudes—oralternatively introduces the additional complications of plural aircraftconducting a coordinated surveillance.

Algorithms to reconstruct the distorted images of underwater targets asseen from above the surface have, however, been developed by M. S.Schmalz et al. Some of this work is reported in “Rectification ofrefractively-distorted imagery acquired through the sea surface—an imagealgebra formulation”, in Proceedings SPIE 1350 (1990); and “Errorsinherent in the restoration of imagery acquired by viewing throughremotely-sensed refractive interfaces and scattering media”, inProceedings SPIE 1479 (1991).

In the reported work, a subsurface image is reconstructed iteratively,starting with assumptions about the depth of observed objects. Resultsfrom the Schmalz group have not been applied in the LIDAR context, or toairborne surveillance generally.

Glint interference with volume backscatter: Another hitherto unrelatedfield of work, previously addressed only in the context of bottommapping, is due to G. C. Guenther et al. For decades they have studiedand documented the problem of confusion between surface glints andprobe-beam backscatter from the ocean volume.

Their studies, however, are exclusively in support of airborne laserbathymetry (“Airborne Laser Hydrography—System Design and PerformanceFactors”, NOAA Professional Paper Series, U.S. Department of Commerce,National Ocean Service 1, 1985). Guenther and his team have produced alarge body of data and algorithms for processing such data.

Limitations due to fan-beam properties: Yet another obstacle to optimumpractice of the innovations set forth in the U.S. Pat. No. 5,467,122patent is the difficulty of obtaining uniform energy distribution andconsistent divergence angle in the fan beam. Typically a singlecylindrical lens is used to expand a laser beam of generally circularcross section, in just one dimension, into a fan shape.

In practice a high-energy pulsed laser beam is neither stable in sizeand position nor uniform in energy distribution, across thecross-section of the beam. Even a stable laser beam of uniform energydistribution, however, when thus spread to form a fan-shaped beam isnonuniform in intensity when it reaches the water surface (or any objectplane)—due to long propagation distances required to reach the water atthe extreme ends of the “fan”.

The propagation distance at each end of the fan is greater than that atthe center by a factor equal to the secant of the fan half-angle. Thebeam divergence over this greater propagation distance proportionatelyreduces the beam brightness at the water surface—and the returnreflection must also travel farther, additionally aggravating thebrightness reduction at the detector.

It may be mentioned that the added travel distance also increases thereturn time at the fan-beam extremes. This delay, however, is whollygeometrical and therefore readily compensated in software; theaccompanying brightness reduction cannot be resolved so easily.

Depending upon the character of the reflection process itself, the addedreturn distance may produce either another factor of the secant, orinstead another factor of the square of the secant. For components ofthe return beam that are generated through essentially specularreflection - such as the glints mentioned earlier, or even some specularportions of the volume backscatter—the incident beam angles in alldirections should be approximately maintained in the return light andthis implies that the same. proportional decrease in energy shoulddevelop again.

For components of the return beam that arise through true volumescattering, however, the distribution of energy in the reflectionprocess should be omnidirectional. If it were distributed equally in alldirections (not usual, but only a limiting case that can help tounderstand likely actual behavior), then the spatial distribution wouldfollow a familiar inverse-square law—leading to attenuation of lightfrom the fan-beam extremes by the square of the secant.

In practice a rather complicated and unknown added attenuation is likelyto occur in those regions. The mix of phenomena can be mathematicallymodeled, and also measured empirically for a variety of conditions, todetermine what factor of either added gain or added brightness wouldequalize volume backscatter under representative conditions. Applicationof that factor in increased gain or brightness may be expected toovercompensate with respect to brightness of glints—but this isunavoidable in view of the different reflection mechanisms involved, asexplained above.

Because a gain-control approach would fail to equalize SNR across thefan-beam track, however, such an approach—although within the scope ofthe invention—is unappealding. It would lead to a systemic variation inSNR variation within every image, always.

In other words, information at the wings of the data array would bechronically both less clear and less reliable than information at thecenter. Hence the conceptual approach of adjusting the outgoing energydistribution in the LIDAR excitation beam is greatly preferable to againcontrol approach.

The '122 patent adopts precisely such an approach; it describes a way ofroughly equalizing the energy received from the ends of the fan withthat at the center. The rough equalization is obtained by halving aparticular type of lens—and then reassembling the halves in oppositeorientation.

This is done in such a way that rays are more concentrated at the limbsof the fan, tending to compensate very roughly for the longer divergencepaths in those regions. Although extremely helpful, this system does nottruly flatten the energy distribution along the intersection of the fanbeam with the water surface, even in theory—and even for the volumebackscatter as distinguished from the glints.

When the above-mentioned beam instabilities and nonuniformities aretaken into consideration, the problem is far more severe. A laser beamgenerally varies in beam position, as well as energy distribution, frompulse to pulse.

The positional wandering takes the center of the beam off the center ofthe reassembled double-half-lens structure described above. This driftdegrades the operating assumptions behind that device, andcorrespondingly disrupts its performance in equalizing energy at thelimbs vs. the center of the fan.

The distributional drift enormously complicates any effort tosystematically compensate for known departures from often-assumed“top-hat” or Gaussian energy distributions in the beam cross-section.Trying to correct for a constantly changing, unknown, high-power energyprofile that is gone a nanosecond after it starts is a virtualimpossibility with present-day technology—and stabilization of ahigh-power laser against both positional and distributional drifts isessentially prohibitive.

In fact even nominal alignment is a relatively onerous task. Preferablynot simply the geometrical center of the beam but rather the effectivecenter, in terms of maximum energy flux (or in terms of optimized energyflux over the entire fan-beam span) should be centered upon thereassembled lens structure.

Thus alignment becomes a matter of attempting to place the driftingeffective center—of a beam of inhomogeneous and varying energydistribution, and varying position too - at the centerline of thereassembled lens structure. This is challenging.

As can now be seen, the related art remains subject to significantproblems. The efforts outlined above—while praiseworthy—have left roomfor considerable refinement.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present invention introduces such refinement, and thus importantlyadvances the art. The invention has several facets, or aspects, that arecapable of use independently. For greatest enjoyment of their benefitsand advantages, however, all or several of these facets are bestemployed in combination together.

In preferred embodiments of a first of its independent aspects orfacets, the invention is a system for detecting objects from an elevatedposition. The system includes a LIDAR subsystem, mounted at such aposition.

The LIDAR subsystem emits thin fan-beam light pulses at a shallow angle,and detects reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses at a like shallowangle. The system also includes a streak-tube subsystem for imagingsuccessive reflected fan-beam pulse portions.

The foregoing may be a description or definition of the first facet oraspect of the present invention in its broadest or most general terms.Even in such general or broad form, however, as can now be seen thefirst aspect of the invention resolves the previously outlined problemsof the prior art.

In particular the combination of streak tube with pulsed fan beam offersimaging capabilities and spatial resolution far in advance of allshallow-angle systems known heretofore. The Anderson and Ulichdocuments, mentioned earlier, offer no hint of using a streak tubeeither to resolve targets at different ranges or even merely tofacilitate imaging.

Although the first major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits theinvention is preferably practiced in conjunction with additionalfeatures or characteristics. In particular, when the first facet of theinvention is used particularly for detecting such objects that are minesor obstacles from such an elevated position on a craft, preferably theshallow angle is a vertical angle. The vertical angle may be definedeither relative to the horizontal or relative to such a craft or itspath.

Another preference is that the streak-tube subsystem image successivereflected fan-beam pulse portions at corresponding successive positionson a display screen. The streak-tube system thereby forms on the screena representation of such objects as a function of distance from thecraft.

Preferably the system includes a mast or high bridge on such craft, forproviding such elevated position for mounting of the LIDAR subsystem. Inthis case preferably the system also includes such craft itself.

Yet another preference for the first aspect of the invention,particularly when used in detecting objects submerged near a watercraft, is that the shallow angle approximate grazing incidence with awater surface near the craft. In this case preferably the thin fan beamilluminates a swath on the order of sixty centimeters (two feet) wide,measured generally in the propagation direction along the water surface.

Preferably the shallow angle is in a range of approximately one tofifteen degrees. Still more preferably the shallow angle is in a rangeof approximately two to ten degrees—and ideally it is roughly fivedegrees.

Another preference is that the thin fan beam be on the order of 2.5centimeters (one inch) thick. Still another preference is that thesystem further include some means for applying a compensation forreduced energy near lateral ends of the fan beam. In this casepreferably the compensation-applying means include a lenslet array orother spatially variable amplitude compensator for variations due to thefan-beam propagation distances—in conjunction with the inverse radialdependence of energy density in the diverging beam. Using a lensletarray is preferable as it can render the fan angle substantiallyindependent of input-beam position and size; and such an array alsotends to homogenize the fan beam.

It is also preferable to apply another kind of correction for deptherrors arising from retardation in the same regions—i. e., near thelateral ends of the beam. This type of correction is preferablyperformed in software.

Now turning to a second of the independent facets or aspects of theinvention: in preferred embodiments of this second facet, the inventionis a system for detecting objects near a water craft. The systemincludes a LIDAR subsystem, mounted to the water craft at an elevatedposition.

The LIDAR subsystem is for emitting thin fan-beam light pulses at ashallow angle, and for detecting reflected portions of the fan-beampulses at a like shallow angle. In addition the system includes somemeans for imaging successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions. Forpurposes of breadth and generality in discussing this second aspect ofthe invention, these means will be called simply the “imaging means”.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the secondaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, this second independent aspect of the invention—unlikethe first—is addressed specifically to detection of objects near a watercraft and to the use of apparatus mounted e. g. to a mast, flying bridgeor other elevated point of the craft. In this environment, or context,the use of a shallow-angle fan-beam introduces a very great advancementin spatial resolution generally and in range and depth discriminationspecifically—even though, in this second facet of the invention asbroadly defined, the imaging system does not necessarily include astreak tube.

As mentioned above, the specifically discussed Anderson and Ulichpatents fail to suggest use of a fan beam. The teachings of other Ulichpatents are far removed from ship-based detection of mines or otherobjects near a water craft.

Although the second major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits theinvention is preferably practiced in conjunction with additionalfeatures or characteristics. In particular, preferably the imaging meansinclude some means for imaging successive reflected fan-beam pulseportions at corresponding successive positions on a display screen.

As before, in this preferred variant the imaging means form on thescreen a representation of such objects as a function of distance fromthe water craft. It is particularly preferable in this case, when thesystem is used with a craft that is in motion, that the imaging meansfurther include means for scrolling the successive lines generallysynchronously with such motion.

Other important preferences include those mentioned earlier for thefirst independent aspect of the invention, relating to inclusion of amast or high bridge, a water craft, specific shallow-angle ranges, andspecific angles and beam dimensions, etc.

In preferred embodiments of its third major independent facet or aspect,too, the invention is a system for detecting objects near a water craft.The system includes some means for emitting thin fan-beam light pulsesat a shallow angle, and for detecting reflected portions of the fan-beampulses at a like shallow angle.

Again for breadth and generality, these means will be called simply the“emitting and detecting means”. The emitting and detecting means aremounted to the water craft at an elevated position.

The system also includes a streak-tube subsystem for imaging successivereflected fan-beam pulse portions. The foregoing may represent adescription or definition of the third aspect or facet of the inventionin its broadest or most general form. Even as couched in these broadterms, however, it can be seen that this facet of the inventionimportantly advances the art.

In particular, in this aspect of the invention the emitting anddetecting means are not necessarily a LIDAR subsystem as such.Nevertheless the application of thin fan-beam pulses projected at ashallow angle—and also detected at a like angle—provides enhancedgeometry with improved range and depth resolution in object detectionfor water craft.

Although the third major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits theinvention is preferably practiced in conjunction with certain additionalfeatures or characteristics. In particular certain preferences outlinedfor the first two facets of the invention are applicable here aswell—including for instance use of a display screen to image successivereflected fan-beam pulse portions at corresponding successive positionson the screen, use of a mast or high bridge for the apparatus, andoperation at grazing incidence with a water surface.

In preferred embodiments of its fourth major independent facet oraspect, again, the invention is a system for detecting objects near awater craft. The system includes a LIDAR subsystem, mounted to such acraft, for emitting thin fan-beam light pulses toward such objects andfor detecting reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses.

Also included are some means for imaging successive reflected fan-beampulse portions. Again for generality these means will be called simplythe “imaging means”.

In this fourth aspect of the invention, the imaging means perform thisfunction in a way that tightly localizes reflection from a water surfacenear such objects. In this way the imaging means facilitate detection ofsuch objects despite proximity to the water surface.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the fourthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, whereas all the aspects of the invention have favorableperformance in regard to the problem of surface-reflectioninterferences, this fourth facet of the invention is particularlyaddressed to that problem. By tightly localizing surface reflection, thefourth independent aspect of the invention enables discriminationbetween return signals due to that reflection and signatures of theobjects of interest.

Although the fourth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits itis preferable to practice the invention with additional features orcharacteristics. In particular, it is preferable that the imaging meansalso include some means for displaying successive reflectedpulse-portion images at corresponding successive different portions of adisplay screen. In this case the imaging means image the surfacereflection from water, near such objects, in a narrow range of closelyadjacent portions of the screen.

In preferred embodiments of its fifth major independent facet or aspect,the invention is a system for detecting objects submerged, or partiallysubmerged, relative to a water surface. This system includes a LIDARsubsystem for emitting thin fan-beam light pulses from above such watersurface toward such objects and for detecting reflected portions of thefan-beam pulses.

In addition the system includes some means for analyzing the reflectedpulse portions to determine water-surface orientations. In additionthese means (the “analyzing means”) operate to derive, from thesewater-surface orientations, submerged-object images corrected forrefractive distortion.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the fifthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, this aspect of the invention is actually able to takeaccount of refraction at the complex surface, and thereby to discern notonly range but also depth, shape and orientation of objects. In this waythe invention becomes enormously valuable in that an operator can obtainenough information to accurately characterize each object individually,and the likely nature of its interaction with the craft—and so assessthe avoidance or other options that may be available.

This facet of the invention is therefore greatly advanced over theSchmalz system, which requires iteration from initial assumptions abouttarget depth. The present invention not only is much faster because itrequires no such iteration, but also because it can yield pictures ofsubmerged objects that are actually corrected for refraction byindividual wave facets—as distinguished from mere correction forrefraction by the sea surface considered as approximately planar.

Although the fifth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefitspreferably the invention is practiced invention with additional featuresor characteristics. In particular, preferably the analyzing meansinclude some means for using precise range resolution of the reflectedpulse portions to determine the water-surface orientations.

In this regard the invention can also be made greatly superior toimaging as taught be the previously mentioned '493 patent, which employsiterations at a different stage in the imaging process—namely, in thefinding of a surface map. Here too the present invention is much faster,sufficiently fast in fact that it can be operated in real time from afixed-wing aircraft overflying an ocean region.

In addition preferably the analyzing means include some means forapplying Snell's Law—in conjunction with the determined water-surfaceorientations—to develop corrections for refraction at such watersurface. In this way the invention operates directly andstraightforwardly on information in the reflected pulses to determinethe desired details about submerged or partly submerged objects.

It is also preferable in some embodiments of this type ofthrough-the-surface-from-above system—particularly embodiments in whichthe LIDAR subsystem is mounted to a water craft—to use measurements ofthe water-surface positions and orientations that are all consistentover the entire field or frame of view. To accomplish this, in certainembodiments of this fifth aspect of the invention the LIDAR subsystempreferably includes a deflection device that sweeps a succession of thethin fan-beam light pulses across the objects and the water surfacerapidly. For example, the deflection may operate starting generally atthe horizon and sweeping downward to some shallow downward angle lookinginto the water, and then returning to the initial generally horizontalposition to sweep again.

More specifically, the rapidity of pulsing and of sweep are preferablyrapid enough to substantially capture all the water-surface orientationsin a consistent common configuration. Ordinarily this calls forcompleting the entire sweep within a moderately small fraction of asecond, such as for example roughly one five-hundredth to one hundredthof a second.

In other embodiments of this fifth aspect of the invention, deflectionis achieved by movement of an aircraft that carries the LIDAR subsystembodily along, above the water surface. In this case the center of thefan beam preferably is directed vertically toward the water, and thenarrow dimension of the beam spans a distance on the order of one meterto a few meters at the water surface.

Thus, to begin with, in these other embodiments the consistent commonconfiguration of the water surface holds only over that distance. Thesweep in this case is not cyclical but rather continuous, movingprogressively forward with the position of the aircraft over the water.

Nevertheless in this case too, the rapidity of pulsing and the velocityof the aircraft are preferably selected to provide a generallycontinuous advance with nearly consistent common configuration of thewater surface in adjacent or overlapping measurement swaths. Thedata-analysis system then preferably sorts out the progressive movementof the surface itself from the progression of data in the LIDARsnapshots.

Usually in airborne operation, as compared with shallow-angleapplications, a larger fraction of the water surface is disposed forspecular reflection of the LIDAR beam. In airborne surveillance theglint problem is therefore ordinarily more severe.

A sixth major independent aspect or facet of the invention is related tothe fifth. The sixth is a method of putting into operation a LIDARsystem that corrects for refraction in LIDAR imaging through waves in awater surface.

The method includes the step of defining simulated images of submergedobjects as seen through waves in a water surface with a LIDAR system. Italso includes the step of preparing an algorithm for applying athree-dimensional image of the water surface in refractive correction ofLIDAR imaging through waves.

The method also includes the step of modeling application of thealgorithm to the simulated images—using an assumed or actualthree-dimensional image of the surface. This step is conducted in such away as to determine requirements of range and pixel resolution forsuccessful operation of the LIDAR system.

Another step, based upon the determined range and pixel resolutionrequirements, is preparing optics for the LIDAR system. The sixth facetof the invention as thus generally defined has the advantage ofeliminating iteration from the hardware-specification stage—the neededresolution is built into the hardware the first time.

Nevertheless this facet of the invention is advantageously performedincorporating certain preferences. Thus preferably the modeling isperformed using a broad range of simulated images—in particular,simulated images prepared using a broad variation of assumedwater-surface and atmospheric conditions, as well as assumptions aboutthe submerged objects.

Another preference is preparing a second algorithm for capturing athree-dimensional image of the water surface based on ranging dataobtained with a LIDAR system over a generally horizontal grid ofpositions, and modeling application of the second algorithm to actualranging data obtained with a LIDAR system. This preference operates toverify adequate performance of the second algorithm as to the criticallyneeded resolution in the ranging direction and in horizontal griddirections.

In preferred embodiments of its seventh major independent facet oraspect, the invention is a system for detecting objects from an elevatedposition. The system includes a scanning-spot LIDAR subsystem, mountedat such a position. This subsystem performs three functions: (1)emitting a series of narrow light pulses at a shallow angle andsuccessively displaced in an arc, (2) repeating the emitting to formsuccessive arcs, and (3) detecting reflected portions of the pulses at alike shallow angle.

In addition the system includes a streak-tube subsystem for imagingreflected pulse patterns from the successive arcs. The streak-tubesubsystem images the reflected pulse patterns as successive lines on adisplay screen.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the seventhaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, this facet of the invention is able to achieve many ofthe same benefits as other aspects of the invention, but without thehigh pulse power and without the special optics needed to provide aunitary, suitably shaped fan beam. This seventh facet of the inventiontrades off those requirements for some added electronics—and some formof beam-displacement capability—needed to effectuate the arcuatesuccession of incremental pulses.

Although the seventh major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits itis preferable to practice the invention with additional features orcharacteristics. In particular, especially if the system is for use in acraft that is in motion, preferably the streak-tube subsystem furthercomprise some means for scrolling the successive lines generallysynchronously with such motion.

Now in preferred embodiments of its eighth major independent facet oraspect, the invention is a system for detecting small exposed objectssuch as floating debris, at ranges on the order of tens of kilometers.This system includes a LIDAR subsystem.

In this eighth facet of the invention, the LIDAR subsystem is forperforming two functions: (1) emitting nearly horizontal, thin fan-beamlight pulses to illuminate such exposed objects at ranges on the orderof tens of kilometers, and (2) detecting nearly horizontal reflectedportions of the fan-beam pulses returned from such exposed objects. Thesystem also includes a streak-tube subsystem for imaging successivereflected fan-beam pulse portions.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the eighthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

As will be understood by those skilled in this field, the shallow-angleor “nearly horizontal” condition imposes extreme demands upon thetime-resolution capability of any system that is called upon todiscriminate between various objects, or between such objects and asurface return. In particular, this facet of the invention exploits theextraordinary time-resolution capability of the streak tube to obtainhitherto unheard-of range performance—despite the nearly horizontalprojection and recovery of the fan beam.

Although the eighth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefitspreferably the invention is practiced with additional features orcharacteristics. In particular, since personnel over kilometer rangeswill be exposed to the probe beam, preferably the light pulses are madeeye-safe.

For this purpose preferably the light pulses are in the near infrared.One ideal wavelength is approximately 1.54 microns.

In preferred embodiments of its ninth major independent facet or aspect,the invention is a landing-aid system for use in facilitating aircraftlandings on an aircraft carrier. The system includes a LIDAR subsystem,mounted to such a carrier, for performing two functions: (1) emittinglight pulses to illuminate such aircraft, and (2) detecting reflectedportions of the pulses returned from such aircraft. This system alsoincludes a streak-tube subsystem for imaging successive reflected pulseportions.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the ninthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, no known art, heretofore, teaches how to make use ofLIDAR or streak-tube technology in such applications. In this case if ashallow angle is employed, the shallow angle may be inverted (i. e.upward rather than downward), and refractive phenomena may not be afactor. Yet much of the same operating principle is applicable.

Although the ninth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits itis preferable to practice the invention with additional features orcharacteristics. In particular, since incoming pilots are exposeddirectly to the pulses it is particularly preferable that the lightpulses be eye-safe.

Again therefore preferably the light pulses are in the near infrared,and perhaps ideally at approximately 1.54 microns. We also prefer toincorporate some means, responsive to the streak-tube subsystem, forproviding real-time measurement of (1) position of such aircraftrelative to a desired approach path, or (2) range of such aircraftrelative to the aircraft carrier, or (3) range-rate of such aircraftrelative to a desired approach path—and most preferably all of thesemeasurements in combination.

In preferred embodiments of a tenth major independent facet or aspect,the invention is an integrated system for detecting objects submerged,or partially submerged, relative to a water surface near a watercraft—and also for detecting airborne objects. This system includes aLIDAR subsystem, mounted to the craft, emitting thin fan-beam lightpulses from above the water surface and for detecting reflected portionsof the fan-beam pulses.

The pulses are emitted both toward submerged, or partially submerged,objects and also toward airborne objects exclusively. The integratedsystem also includes dual means for analyzing the reflected and detectedportions of the pulses.

The dual means include, first, some means for analyzing returns of pulseportions emitted toward submerged, or partially submerged, objects. Thisanalysis determines water-surface orientations, and therefrom derivessubmerged-object images corrected for refractive distortion.

The dual analyzing means include, second, some means for separatelyanalyzing the reflected and detected portions of pulses emitted towardthe airborne objects exclusively. This second part of the analysisderives airborneobject images.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the tenthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, this integrated system makes maximal use of the hardware,and most of the software, used in the screening for obstacles orweaponry in the water—to check also, concurrently, for weapons or otherfeatures that are airborne. In this way the integrated system achievesan extremely high cost efficiency, as well as space efficiency in thetypically crowded quarters of a water-craft bridge or surveillance room.

Although the tenth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits theinvention is preferably practiced in conjunction with certain additionalfeatures or characteristics. In particular, preferably the firstanalyzing means also recognize and image low-altitude airborne objects.

Objects of this sort are within the narrow vertical range between thehorizon and the water surface as seen from, for instance, a mast-mountedLIDAR subsystem. Such recognition is advantageously based e. g. upondiscrimination of pulse returns that precede any surface-flash returnfor adjacent regions in the field of view.

Also preferably the LIDAR subsystem includes means for sweeping asequence of the light pulses across such submerged, or partiallysubmerged, objects and such airborne objects in a substantiallycontinuous succession.

By the word “across” here, it is intended to include sweeping the pulsesequence across the scene vertically, particularly since this is afavored configuration. Thus in this preferred mode of practice of thetenth aspect of the invention, the sequence of pulses typically proceedswithout interruption from scanning above the horizon to scanning belowthe horizon—or vice versa.

This uninterrupted sequencing is adopted even though the analyticalstage, the analyzing means, must apply algorithms for the above-horizonreturns that are different from those for the below-horizon returns. Thebenefits of uninterrupted sequencing include full coverage, and relativesimplicity of the apparatus.

It might be reasoned that this preference pays a modest penalty inwasted optical energy and wasted pulse time—since there are someportions of the sweep that are below the horizon but too close to thehorizon to return useful information about submerged objects. Assuggested earlier, however, this zone (as well as the region wheresubmerged objects are seen easily) may contain airborne objects ofinterest.

In preferred embodiments of its eleventh major independent facet oraspect, the invention is a LIDAR system for imaging objects. The systemincludes a pulsed light source.

It also includes an array of lenslets receiving light pulses from thesource and forming from those pulses a pulsed fan-shaped beam of thelight for projection toward such objects to be imaged. The systemadditionally includes light detectors receiving portions of the pulsedfan-shaped beam reflected from such objects, and developingcorresponding image signals in response to the reflected portions.

The system further includes some means for analyzing the signals todetermine characteristics of such objects or to display successiveimages of such objects. For generality in this document these means willbe called the “analyzing means”.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the eleventhaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, as will be detailed below, the use of a lenslet array toform a fan-shaped beam from a conventional input light beamintroduces—in one stroke—solutions to several of the earlier-describedknotty problems. These include spatial drift of beam position and size,and particularly the dependence of both fan-beam angle and spatialenergy distribution upon those variables; and also the problems ofalignment difficulty and of imprecise compensation for the cosine effectin energy distribution along the water-fan interface.

At the same time the use of a lenslet array offers the beam-homogenizingbenefits previously known only in somewhat remote fields such aslighting for photolithography. For present purposes this represents anincidental benefit.

Although the eleventh major aspect of the invention thus verysignificantly advances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment ofits benefits the invention is preferably practiced in conjunction withcertain additional features or characteristics. In particular,advantageously the LIDAR system analyzing means include a streak tubefor generating the images.

Also preferably the array of lenslets, in forming the fan-shaped beam,modifies the angular distribution of light with respect to a longcross-sectional dimension of the fan shape; in this case ideally thearray of lenslets increases the energy at lateral extremes of the fanshape. A particularly beneficial application of this aspect of theinvention is for a system in which the pulsed light source is a laser.

Other preferences, as noted earlier, include combination of this facetof the invention with others of the independent aspects or facets underdiscussion. Among these are the first ten facets discussed above—as wellas shaping of the lenslet surfaces, and matching of refractive anddiffractive properties, as introduced below.

In preferred embodiments of its twelfth major independent facet oraspect, the invention is a light-projection system. The system includesa light source, and an array of lenslets receiving light from the sourceand forming therefrom a fan-shaped beam of the light for projection.

In this aspect of the invention the lenslets have surfaces that modifythe angular distribution of light with respect to a long cross-sectionaldimension of the fan shape. More particularly the array of lensletsincreases the energy at lateral extremes of the fan shape.

The foregoing may represent a description or definition of the twelfthaspect or facet of the invention in its broadest or most general form.Even as couched in these broad terms, however, it can be seen that thisfacet of the invention importantly advances the art.

In particular, this aspect of the invention enables an extremelyvaluable equalization of the light-beam intensity at lateral extremes.This is especially useful in flattening the energy distribution along alaterally extended track such as the intersection of the beam with agenerally planar surface, e. g. an ocean surface—the primary applicationfor most of the other aspects of the invention.

This aspect of the invention, however, is by no means limited toproviding such equalization. To the contrary, this facet of theinvention is far more broadly applicable for a wide range of specialsituations—including, for example, either equalizing or deliberatelyintroducing a variation in the intensity along an intersection of thebeam with surfaces of other shapes.

Such shapes for instance may be spherical, cylindrical, ellipsoidal,planar but angled relative to the beam front, etc.—or entirelyarbitrary. Even this, however, is not the full extent of this facet ofthe invention.

It can also be used to modify illumination patterns along a track thatis not defined by a physically demarcated surface. For instance thisaspect of the invention in principle can be used to uniformly illuminatea rectilinear path within a fluid medium—as for measurement ofscattering, fluorescence, Raman excitation or the like, either by themedium or by particles suspended in it.

Although the twelfth major aspect of the invention thus significantlyadvances the art, nevertheless to optimize enjoyment of its benefits theinvention is preferably practiced in conjunction with certain additionalfeatures or characteristics. In particular, advantageously the lightsource is a laser.

Also preferably the array produces an angular distribution w(θ) ofenergy, which is a desired distribution; and small height increments Δyof lenslet surfaces in the array are shaped in relation to correspondingsmall angular increments Δθ by the relation Δy/Δθ=w(θ). It is thisfundamental capability to sculpt the lenslets in such a way as toproduce virtually any desired angular distribution of the fan-beamenergy that gives rise to the remarkable benefits enumerated just above.

It is further preferable that the surfaces be shaped byphotolithography. Again here, as in regard to all the independent facetsor aspects of the invention, this twelfth one is advantageouslypracticed in combination with others.

In preferred embodiments of a thirteenth major independent facet oraspect, the invention is a light-projection system that includes a lightsource. It also includes an array of lenslets receiving light from thesource—and forming a fan-shaped beam of that light for projection.

The lenslets have refractive characteristics, as is commonplace withlenses generally. The array of lenslets, however, also has diffractivecharacteristics. According to this thirteenth aspect of the invention,the refractive and diffractive characteristics are matched forperformance at specified projection angles.

Advantages of such matching, in relation to the earlier-presentedlimitations of prior-art systems, will now be self evident.

In preferred embodiments of yet a fourteenth major independent facet,the invention is a light-projection system. The system includes ahigh-power light source.

It also includes an array of negative cylindrical lenslets receivinglight from the source and forming therefrom a fan-shaped beam of thelight for projection toward such objects. The negative cylindricallenslets form virtual line images, rather than real high-power images,of the source.

According to this fourteenth facet of the invention, air breakdown isavoided by absence of real high-power images of the source. Advantagesof this aspect of the invention will immediately be plain to thoseskilled in the art.

Such benefits are not limited to the extremely highpower pulsed laserbeams needed in large-scale top-down ocean surveillance orextended-range shallow-angle hazard monitoring, or aircraft-carrieroperational aids, etc. discussed above. Rather they are potentially ofvalue in any application requiring a very high illumination levelemanating, as a concentrated fan beam, in an expanding geometry from asmall source.

All of the foregoing operational principles and advantages of thepresent invention will be more fully appreciated upon consideration ofthe following detailed description, with reference to the appendeddrawings, of which:

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a side elevational diagram, after Anderson et al., showing aprior-art partly submerged stationary experimental deployment;

FIG. 2 is a like diagram but for one basic arrangement according to thepresent invention, and particularly for a water craft that is in motion;

FIG. 3 is a like diagram, but enlarged, showing only geometricalrelationships of a probe beam with the water surface;

FIG. 4 is a corresponding plan view for the arrangement of FIGS. 1 and2, particularly with a fan beam;

FIG. 5 is a like view but with a scanning spot;

FIG. 6 is a diagram like FIG. 2 but somewhat less schematic and showingsome key dimensions;

FIG. 7 is a representation of a dual display which is one form ofinformational output such as can be generated by apparatus of thepresent invention—the upper portion of the display representing aforward elevational view of a scene developed by the apparatus; and thelower portion representing a top plan view of the same scene,particularly as developed by a flying-spot form of the invention such asthe previously described sixth aspect;

FIG. 8 is a like representation of an alternative to the lower portionof the FIG. 7, i. e. a top-plan view display such as developed by afan-beam form of the invention;

FIG. 9 is a graph showing exemplary performance estimates for bothnighttime and daytime conditions—more particularly, the square of thesignal-to-noise ratio (in dB) as a function of range (in meters) for acraft operating at ten knots, with a swath width of four hundred meters;

FIG. 10 is a graph showing safe operating distance as a function ofswath width (both in meters), also for both night and day, and for threedifferent craft velocities;

FIG. 11 is a block diagram of apparatus according to one preferredembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 12 is an elevational side view generally like FIGS. 1 through 3,but showing another preferred embodiment of the invention asincorporated into an aircraft-carrier landing guidance system;

FIG. 13 is a set of three displays generated by the FIG. 12 embodimentfor the information of aircraft-carrier operations personnel;

FIG. 14 is a view like FIG. 12 but showing another preferred embodimentas used in scanning a laterally extended fan beam vertically to locateboth waterborne and airborne objects in at least one direction from amonitoring position;

FIG. 14A is a highly schematic or conceptual block diagram showing aLIDAR subsystem (in two primary variants) for use in the FIG. 14object-locating system;

FIG. 15 is a view like FIG. 14 but at a smaller scale, to take intoaccount the curvature (drawn exaggerated) of the ocean surface, and alsoshowing the optional extension of such vertical scanning beyond thezenith to locate objects in two directions from the monitoring position;

FIG. 16 is a set of simulated images of a submerged object as imagedthrough ocean wave surfaces having various characteristics such as occurwithin a span of 15 seconds, the actual size of the object being shownas a white circle in the upper left image, and the parameters used inthe simulation being: sea state 2-3, water Jerlov IB (very clear),object at depth 10 m (38 feet) with diameter 1 m (35 inch) andreflectivity 8%;

FIG. 17 is a set of related diagrams showing several ways in which oceanwaves disrupt LIDAR imaging of submerged objects from above the wavesurface, views (a) and (b) being coordinated elevations respectivelyshowing distortion zones and objects positioned relative to those zones,and view (c) being a top plan coordinated with view (b);

FIG. 18 is a single streak-tube LIDAR frame taken from above the wavesurface;

FIG. 19 is a flow chart representing a method of preparing a LIDARsystem that corrects for refraction in LIDAR imaging through waves in awater surface;

FIG. 20 is a graph of light return versus depth for both water-volumebackscatter and water-surface glints;

FIG. 21 is a view like FIG. 18 but enlarged to show a small section of atypical ocean-surface return, and particularly showing glints and volumebackscatter separately;

FIG. 22 is a diagram illustrating reconstruction of a submerged-objectimage by means of correction for oceansurface wave refraction;

FIG. 23 is a somewhat schematic cross-sectional side elevation of apreferred embodiment of the invention that is a positive lenslet array(shown with related optical rays) that can be used to produce a fan beamfrom an incident collimated beam such as a laser beam;

FIG. 24 is a like view, but enlarged, of a single lens element of theFIG. 23 array, showing certain focal relations for the lens;

FIG. 25 is a view like FIG. 23 but with negative lenslets;

FIG. 26 is a like view showing a relationship between beam angle at theback of the lens and ray heights above the optical axis on the front ofthe lens;

FIG. 27 is a like view of a lens optimized to increase the irradiance atthe edge of the fan beam; and

FIG. 28 is a like view of a fan beam generated by the lenslet arrayshown in FIG. 23 or 25.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

1. Shallow-Angle Marine Observations Below the Horizon

Certain preferred embodiments of the invention use streak-tube imagingLIDAR (or STIL) as a “ship shield”. A LIDAR beam 11 is projected overthe water and its return detected, by a forward-looking, low grazingangle LIDAR unit 12.

The LIDAR unit is mounted on a mast 13 of a water craft 14 that is inforward motion 15 along the water surface 16. Upon reaching the surface16 the LIDAR beam is generally refracted to form a downward-propagatingcontinuing beam 21 within the water.

The down-beam interacts with submerged (or floating) objects—therebymodifying the return beam. The system thus enables the water-craftoperator to find and avoid mines and other obstacles, or to locatedesired objects.

Preferably the emitted beam and the return-collection beam geometry bothhave the shape of a vertically thin fan. Such a beam provides a wide(left to right) detection swath and precise temporal resolution, fordetection of even submerged targets while rejecting surface clutter. Toachieve the latter objective, the use of a very thin fan beam is verydesirable.

Theoretical analysis and scaling—from experimental data to amast-mounted LIDAR—suggest that swath width in excess of 400 m, atranges exceeding 500 m, is achievable with available technology. Asnoted above, it is contemplated to operate the present invention intothe range of kilometers. The result is an important expansion of onboardthreat avoidance for high-value assets—including civilian operations, aswell as mine countermeasures and the like.

Important figures of merit for grazing-incidence LIDAR may be called thedifferential time of arrival Δr (FIG. 3) and total ambiguity. The latteris a measure of overall spatial resolution for the system, in thedirection of beam propagation.

The differential time of arrival Δr at the surface is actually not inunits of time, but rather is a ranging uncertainty in terms of distance.It is found from the fanbeam thickness w and the beam angle θ off thevertical, asΔr=w/tanθ,and this is 11.4w at five-degree incidence. This uncertainty arises frominability of the system to discriminate between pulse return from thetop and bottom edges of the outgoing beam.

Since this excess range occurs in both the transmission and receptionpaths, the total ambiguity is twice this value or 2w/tanθ, amounting to22.8w at five degrees. It can now be appreciated that the spatialresolution is twenty-three times the beam thickness—more than an orderof magnitude greater than the beam thickness.

Hence good spatial resolution demands an extremely shallow (thin) beam.For instance, to obtain a range ambiguity of 60 cm (two feet) the beamthickness must be only about 2½ cm (one inch).

From this discussion it can be appreciated that arrival time and hencespatial resolution are extremely sensitive to angle—proportional to1/tanθ. The value of the angle θ, however, would be difficult todetermine in absolute terms with high precision.

Because of this extreme sensitivity, approaches such as gated camerasystems, which require a priori range information for setting of thetiming, cannot work satisfactorily. That is, they cannot yield adequateresolution.

The present invention, by using a streak tube to timeresolve the return,operates on a relative basis. Inherently therefore it is insensitive tovariations in absolute angle θ or absolute arrival time.

Detecting objects such as mines calls for resolution of roughly 30 cm(one foot). To maintain this performance in the lateral direction aswell as the range direction, a swath width of 400 m should map to about1300 pixels. This value is readily accommodated by streak-tube geometry,which images along the axis of the fan beam.

The alternative scanning-spot system, using e. g. a single-pixel spot,would require a pulse repetition frequency 1300 times higher than theSTIL system, and also requires the scanning capability and associatedreturn-data processing. Nevertheless the scanning-spot facet of theinvention does represent a viable alternative for at least some specialconditions.

It is asserted earlier in this document that the fan beam rejectssurface clutter. That statement is based on two factors:

-   -   (1) The surface specular return remains very tightly localized        in the STIL image; therefore shallow targets are not obscured by        the specular flash. Such obscuring can be a real problem with        the logarithmic amplifiers or transient digitizers (or both)        that are used in systems based on photomultiplier tubes.    -   (2) The STIL can actually form an image of the surface waves        (from the precise range resolution). Therefore the invention        further contemplates deterministic removal of subsurface        target-image distortion, through using this surface information        in conjunction with Snell's Law.

A gated camera approach (wide beams), as mentioned above will not servewell. The reason is the differential time of arrival—with respect toboth the fore/aft dimension and the lateral (horizontal) dimension.

As to a scanning-spot system, the thinking behind the 1300-pixel figurementioned above is that charge-coupled detectors (CCDs) are available inlengths up to 2048 pixels. Therefore the 1300-pixel figure is wellwithin the capability of current technology.

Accordingly, far preferable to either gated cameras or a spot scanner isa streak-tube imaging system, receiving data collected as in FIGS. 4 and6. Here a planar fan beam 11 of projected light 31 leaves the mast 13 ofa craft 14 that is traveling forward 15.

The beam 11, preferably 1 to 2½ cm (one-half to one inch) thick,intersects the water in a straight swath 17 that is thirty to sixtycentimeters (one to two feet) “wide”—i. e., in the fore-to-aft directionrelative to motion 15 of the craft 14. The transverse dimension 23 ofthe beam/water intersection 17 is about 400 m (1300 feet) “long”—i. e.,in the lateral direction relative to motion 15 of the craft 14.

Naturally, because of irregularities in the water surface (and despitethe geometrical precision of the laser beam) the intersection is notstraight Precisely; its departures from precise rectilinearity vary withthe weather, and other factors that affect the surface contours. Theentire transverse dimension of the beam is reasonably uniform in energydensity and is projected simultaneously. Return information from thewings (left and right corners) of the pattern, however, is reduced inintensity by virtue of the inverse radial dependence of energy in thediverging beam, in conjunction with the greater travel distance to thestraight intersection 17 with the water surface. It is also retarded,due to the greater travel distance.

At the beam/water intersection swath 17, the beam is refracted by thewater surface O (FIG. 6), continuing within the water as a down beam 34.Submerged objects 22 such as mines (and also turbidity of the wateritself) form a return up beam 35, reverse-refracted to constitute acollected reflection beam 32 for detection at the receiver R.

In this system the round-trip time of flight to the surface flash yieldshorizontal range, while the round-trip relative time from the surfaceflash to the object yields depth of the object. The system thus yieldsrange (very nearly equal to, and directly proportional to, exacthorizontal range), bearing, and depth on each single shot—i. e. laserpulse.

From the foregoing, those skilled in the art will understand thatobjects floating at the surface may possibly be distinguished from thesurface flash if they have a very greatly different reflectance thanthat of the water surface. If relatively larger, such objects may bemore readily detected.

Attenuation and retardation at the wings tend to disrupt slightly theregularity of the display, making objects at the wings appear bothdarker and lower than objects at the same depth nearer the center. Theseirregularities can be compensated in various ways if desired.

The attenuation is advantageously compensated, as set forth later inthis document, by an array of lenslets that sculpts the amplitude of thebeam, redirecting energy from central portions of the outgoing andreturn fan beams to the wings. The retardation is best corrected bysoftware in the image-analytical stage.

The scanning-spot LIDAR system projects a beam 11′ (FIG. 5) that is notfan shaped but instead is tightly constrained in the horizontal as wellas vertical direction. The resulting individual spot or pixel 17′ at thebeam/water interface beam is swung back and forth 33 to produce acircular arc at the interface.

This system is not subject to the range-irregularity disruption justdiscussed; however, the additional electronics and optics for this formof the invention appear to render it somewhat less desirable. Such aflying-spot scanner could time resolve, but the system would berelatively complex.

For example, to achieve 30 cm (one foot) resolution over a swath oftransverse length 23′ equal to about 400 m (1300 feet) at ten knotswould require a pulse repetition frequency of 400×3.28×5×3.28=21,320 Hz,which is quite a fast laser. The receiver would have to digitize eachpulse at this high rate.

Such a system also requires a complex scanner with very high pointingstability to allow spatial reconstruction of these multiple pulses.Overall, it is a difficult technical challenge though possible, and theSTIL system avoids all these difficulties by forming both range-azimuthand altitude-azimuth images (see discussion following) on each pulse,and time resolving by electrostatic sweep.

Exemplary numerical values for both forms of the invention include rangeR (FIG. 6) of about 500 m (1600 feet) and nominal vertical angle θ ofabout five degrees. The system works over a fairly wide range invertical angles from the mast.

In variation of vertical angle θ, however, there is an importanttradeoff. Smaller angles yield greater range but lower signal-to-noiseratio for subsurface detail.

This limitation is due to poor Fresnel transmission through thebeam/water interface at small angles. Thus standoff range R can betraded off against detection depth.

Accordingly the five degrees (off horizontal) mentioned above is onlyillustrative, but offers a good compromise for a standoff range ofoperational utility. It will be appreciated that it is not sufficientmerely to detect a mine or obstacle: what is required is to be able tostop or turn before striking it.

The mast height H is about 35 m (110 feet). The mast setback 18 from thebow may be about 80 m (250 feet).

With streak-tube display, generally as described in the Bowker andLubard patents including U.S. Pat. No. 5,467,122 (entirely incorporatedby reference in this present document) on vertically excited streak-tubeLIDAR imaging, return delay after the return instant of the surfaceflash is displayed as depth. This is also illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8of the present document.

The “forward view” 41—or in patent parlance “elevational view”—namely,the view as seen looking forward through the water, may be called an“altitude-azimuth view”. It displays altitude or depth 43 vertically,and azimuth 44 to left and right, horizontally.

The complementary “plan view”, or “top view”, or “range-azimuth view” 48(for the straight fan beam of FIG. 4) displays range 46 vertically, andazimuth 44—exactly matching the azimuth display at top of FIG. 7—to leftand right. It is a view as taken from above the scene with the watercraft 114 at the bottom of the picture, and the present scan 41′—thealtitude-azimuth view 41 compressed to an incremental strip of height47—at the top of the picture.

Actually this plan view is computer-generated by vertical compression ofmany instances of the elevational view, and successive placement ofthose instances as an array 46 from bottom toward top of the screen.

In the flying-spot system, a range-azimuth view may appear as in thelower portion of FIG. 7. This type of view corresponds to that of FIG. 8discussed above, except for the arc shape of each of the incrementalslices 41″, 46′ formed from the vertically compressed altitude-azimuthviews—again with the water craft 114′ at the bottom of the view.

For successful implementation of the present invention it is necessaryto deal with various practical issues including clutter from waves,whitecaps and the like; discrimination against kelp, fish and otherwaterborne interferants; and the determination of achievablecombinations of swath width and standoff range.

As noted above, standoff range must be made adequate to enable stoppingthe water craft if an obstacle or mine is detected. Signal-to-noiseratio (SNR) and thus measurement precision are related to speed of thewater craft.

This is an energy-density analysis: SNR is dependent upon energyreturned from the target; if the craft moves more quickly, the energydensity per pulse (for a fixed laser power) must be lower; thus theenergy integrated over the target is smaller and SNR is lower.

Signal-to-noise is also related to and overall angle of view; the datagraphed in FIG. 9 are for ten knots, and a 400 m swath width. Theysuggest that the standoff range can be traded off against accuracy ofimaging.

Solar background is an additional noise source that limitsdetectability. Thus the tradeoff is in any event more favorable atnight, when interfering ambient light is minimal.

The nomograph of FIG. 10 takes into account two effects: if the craftmoves more slowly, (1) detection can be at a greater range (from the SNRanalysis above), and (2) the craft can stop in a shorter distance (thusproviding a greater safety distance even if detection range were thesame). Both these effects yield a greater standoff range at lowerspeeds.

The double-ended arrow at the right of the drawing summarizes thesignificance of the “safety distance” scale at the left. Positions 51 inthe graph above the zerosafety-distance line are safe, whereas positions52 below that line may entail possible contact with mines.

As shown, increased SNR at lower speeds can be traded for a greaterswath width, and conversely where rather high speeds are needed. Theutility of really narrow or wide swaths, however, is a matter forpersonnel controlling the craft to evaluate operationally.

Upon operator command entered at a console 94 (FIG. 11), a computer 92develops a control pulse 91 to fire the laser transmitter 61. The laseris advantageously a diodepumped solid state (Nd:YAG) unit transmittingin the bluegreen (532 nm).

A beam splitter 62 picks of a small (less than one percent) fraction ofthe transmitted pulse, which is sent 64 to a fast photodiode 65 forprecise measurement of the time at which the pulse leaves thetransmitter. The main portion of the beam passes through an anamorphiclens (diverging optic) 63 to form a fan beam 68; the beam remainscollimated in the elevation axis.

The backscattered light 84 is imaged with a precisely coalignedreceiver. The receiver optical train includes a bandpass filter (BPF) 83to reject solar radiation.

A conventional imaging lens 82 focuses the scene onto a slit 81, whosewidth is chosen to match the width of the transmitted fan beam. Theimage at the slit is relayed by a first fiber optic (FO) 77 to thephotocathode of the streak tube 76.

The fiber optic may be tapered, allowing a wider receiver aperture forincreased collection efficiency. Another alternative is to use multiplereceivers to span the fan beam; in this case each receiver could use alongerfocal-length lens, and a larger aperture.

Within the streak tube 76, the electron beam is swept using ahigh-voltage ramp generator 74. This sweep is synchronized with thetransmit time, using a programmable delay generator. The consequentrange/azimuth image is formed on phosphor at the back (left, asillustrated) end of the streak tube.

A second fiber-optic coupling 75 relays the image to a CCD 73 fordigitization and readout by the computer 92. The same computerpreferably both acquires the data and performs system control.

Forward motion of the platform sweeps out the in-track dimension. Bycombining the returns from multiple laser shots with platform locationfrom a Global Positioning System module 95, the returns may be spatiallyregistered into geodetic coordinates—forming, if desired, a fullthreedimensional image of the scene in front of the ship.

The computer system includes automatic target detection algorithms todetect and precisely localize hazards to navigation. The operatordisplay also preferably includes a scrolling map display 46′, 46 (FIGS.7 and 8), such as previously discussed, to provide situational awarenessof the area in front of the ship.

In addition to utilization for mine detection, the grazing-incidenceLIDAR can also be used for detection of floating debris (and otherhazards to navigation), periscopes, cruise missiles and other threats.For the case of these exposed objects, the blue-green laser ispreferably replaced with a near-IR laser (e. g., 1.54 microns) toprovide eye-safe detection.

In such applications the fan beam can be projected at near-horizontalangles, resulting in considerably increased standoff ranges. Inparticular the standoff range will be controlled by the clear line ofsight, which is ultimately limited by the curvature of the earth.Detection ranges of ten to twenty kilometers accordingly may bepossible, depending upon transceiver height above the water. For thecase of periscope and missile detection, the search area would includeboth sides and aft to cover a 360-degree search volume.

2. Aircraft-Carrier Operations

Another application of the mast-mounted LIDAR, as mentioned earlier, isas a landing aid for carrier operations. A forward-looking, eye-safesystem would provide real-time measurement of the aircraft 122 (FIG. 12)relative to the aircraft carrier 114, and relative to the desiredapproach path, as well as range and range-rate to guide both pilot andcontrollers in an operations control center 118.

The additional range and range-rate data represent a considerablebenefit for aircraft safety. In addition to aiding pilots in mannedaircraft, the data from mast-mounted LIDAR units could be ofconsiderable utility for unmanned air vehicle (UAV) operations.

The system includes a LIDAR transceiver 112 mounted to a mast 113 ordirectly to a tower on the carrier 114, and also includes acomputer-controlled streak-tube module 117 disposed for viewing in theoperations center 118. Controls of the computer are also advantageouslydisposed for use by the controllers there.

The radiated LIDAR pulses 131, like those discussed earlier in other maybe in the form of a thin fan beam directed toward an expected ordetermined altitude of—for example—an incoming aircraft 122; if desiredthe fan beam may be scanned vertically to encompass a greater range ofpossible or permissible altitudes. As in earlier-discussed forms of theinvention, if the beam is at at least some known (or approximatelyknown) shallow angle to the vertical, the system is able to interpretthe return delay in terms of altitude, as well as range, and so generatean elevational view as in FIG. 13(b).

Such a view may display an image 222 of the aircraft in relation todesired glide-path indicia. Such indicia may for example include avertical line 261 h representing a desired instantaneous horizontalposition, taking into account the known range and calculated range-rate,i. e. velocity; and a horizontal line 261 v representing a like desiredvertical position.

As before, such instantaneous images can be compressed and accumulatedto provide numerous strip-shaped slices 246 of a plan view, as in FIG.13(c). This view, closely analogous to FIG. 8, shows an image 222 of theaircraft 122 in relation to an image 214 of the carrier 114—and may alsoshow superposed indicia 261 h, 261 v as in FIG. 13(b), or alternativelymay show safe glide-path boundaries 262.

If desired the system computer can also be programmed straightforwardlyto assemble a side elevation which simulates the original scene of FIG.12. This elevational view can be given various helpful characteristics,as for instance a glide-path indicium 261, and as illustrated a greatlyexpanded vertical scale—since safe landings are particularly sensitiveto correct elevation of the aircraft relative to the carrier deck.

3. Observations Above the Horizon; Integrated Operation

As pointed out earlier, LIDAR is known to be useful for obtaininginformation about airborne objects. In terms of cost and spacerequirements, however, it is objectionable to provide a separate systemfor such purposes.

The present invention contemplates an integrated system for detectingboth waterborne objects 322 s, 322 f (FIG. 14) and airborne objects 322a, 322 b from a water craft 314. Here a LIDAR subsystem 312, which ismounted to the water craft, emits thin fan-beam light pulses 311 z, 311a, 311 b, 311 n from above the water surface 316 toward submergedobjects 322 s or floating objects 322 f, and also toward airborneobjects 322 a, 322 b. The LIDAR subsystem 312 also detects reflectedportions of the emitted pulses.

The LIDAR subsystem 312 includes a module 331 (FIG. 14A) which is theportion mounted well above water level to a mast, flying bridge etc.Although the laser beam in principle can be piped to the LIDAR module331, that module more typically includes the transmitting laser 373itself, with electronic control circuits 333-345 and power 372 forpulsing the laser.

Also included in the LIDAR module 331 are associated mechanical andoptical components 371, 374, 375 devoted to support and orientation ofthe laser, sweep of its beam, and transmission of the swept beam 376toward objects and regions of interest 322 (FIGS. 14, 15). Although theoptics 375 may partially precede or encompass the beam sweep 374, forsimplicity's sake the sweep 374 and optics 375 are shown as sequential.

For best coalignment of the return beam 377 with the emitted beam 376,the optics 375 preferably include the collecting and transmittingstages—integrated or at least intimately associated, as suggested in thedrawing. Likewise for best performance the streak tube 378, forreceiving the collected return beam 377, is advantageously also housedin the LIDAR module 331.

Adequate implementation in general is processing-intensive. Both pulsegeneration and data interpretation are performed in portions 330, 331 ofone or more programmed processors that at present are typically digitalelectronic devices but may instead be implemented in optical circuitsfor greater throughput.

As the drawing indicates, the processing may be equivalently performedby dedicated firmware in a general-purpose processor, or by anapplication-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) 331 in the LIDARmodule—or by software 332 operating in a processor that is part of araster image processor (RIP) or general-purpose computer 330. In thelatter case, the control software may be regarded as a “driver” for theLIDAR/streak-tube system.

A raster image processor is nowadays highly favored for managing (in awell-optimized manner) the intensive data massage typically associatedwith images—while relieving both the specialized hardware 331 and thegeneral-purpose computer for other tasks. The diagram of FIG. 14A, bydisplaying all the processing functions as spread across both thecomputer/RIP block 330 and LIDAR module 331, is intended to convey thatsystem implementers can distribute the processing as among ASIC,firmware and software as best suits performance, space constraints,efficiency and economics.

Programming for the LIDAR subsystem is preferably held in onboard memory333 as discussed above, and supplied to (or in the case of an ASICintegrally incorporated in) 334, 335 the functional modules. Apulse/sweep control block 337 controls pulse power 372 for the laser373, and also develops synchronized control signals 381, 382 for thelaser sweep 374 and streak tube 378 (with its internal sweep).

The pulse and sweep processing 337 provides for emission of pulsestoward both a region 341 in which submerged (or partially submerged)objects can exist—i. e., below the horizon—and also a region 342 inwhich exclusively airborne objects can be present, i. e. above thehorizon. As shown within the sweep subblock 343, however, there are twofundamental alternatives for implementation of this part of the system:the continuous-succession function 344 or interrupted-successionfunction 345 will be taken up below.

The pulse and sweep timing and other parameters are passed 346 to thedetection module 347, which receives data 379 from the streak tube378—representative of the returned beam 377. The outputs of thedetection module 347, namely detected-reflection data 351, proceed tothe imageprocessing block 360.

This latter block 360 may include a horizon-recognition function 354,which may be particularly critical if the horizon-interrupted-successionalternative 345 is operating. These two functions require coordination352, and for best results may be subject to feedback servocontrol 353from the recognition function 354 back to the horizonskip function 345.

The horizon-recognition function 354 is shown conceptually asencompassed within the image-processing block 360. In practice, however,for purposes the interruptedsuccession sweep function 345 the LIDARsubsystem may acquire horizon data from a separate data train that isnot physically integrated into the illustrated primary opticalcomponentry and possibly not even integrated into the main processors.

It should be noted, however, that a horizon-recognition function 354—atleast one derived preliminarily from the optical returns themselves—isdesirable even in the continuous-succession-sweep operating mode 344.This is because horizon information is needed to route data to theprocessing channels 362-366 discussed below.

The principal function within the image-processing block 360 is analysis361 of the reflected and detected portions of the laser pulses. Insubstance three parallel processing channels 362-364, 365 and 366 can berecognized.

The first two of these operate separately upon the returns emittedtoward the submerged, or partially submerged, objects—i. e., upon thereturn of laser pulses directed below the horizon. In the first channel,the goal is to derive images of submerged (or partly submerged) objects.

This goal requires preliminary determination 362 of water-surfaceorientations—based upon the same returns from the water, but upon theranging component of those returns rather than the image content assuch. The surface orientations in turn enable the overall system todevelop a correction 363 for refractive distortion. Finally thisrefractive correction is applied to the image content to providesubmerged-object images 364 with greatly reduced distortion.

At the same time the second channel 365 is able to determine whether anyportion of the return from below-horizon laser pulses is airborne,rather than waterborne. This information too can be extracted fromranging data: a return that is greatly advanced relative to that fromthe highest waves must be above the surface.

The concept of “the highest wave” requires assumptions of at least someminimal degree of continuity in the wave surface. If it is desired to beable to discriminate waves from wave-skimming projectiles, determinationof the highest wave—and recognition of airborne objects very near thehighest wave—can be enhanced through dynamic analysis of the liquidsurface, as well as dynamic analysis of the movement of candidateairborne objects.

As the diagram makes clear, the refractive correction 363 developed inthe first processing channel 362-364 is omitted in the second channel365.

In addition, the third channel 366 separately analyzes the reflected anddetected portions of pulses emitted toward airborne objectsexclusively—i. e., the return of pulses directed above the horizon. Theobjective here is again parallel, namely to derive airborne-objectimages from the detected pulse data.

In this part of the scene, however, as will be evident there can neverbe liquid-refractive distortion to account for. Therefore the imageprocessing in this region must proceed differently—and more simply,without attempting to determine anything about any intervening surface.There is no need to apply either (1) any refractive correction or (2)any preliminary ranging or dynamic-motion analysis, for in this regionthere is no need to distinguish airborne from waterborne objects.

In one preferred embodiment of this system, preferably the LIDARsubsystem sweeps a sequence 311 z-a-b-n (FIG. 14) of the light pulsesacross such submerged, or partially submerged, objects and such airborneobjects in a substantially continuous succession. By “across” here it isintended to encompass use of a vertical sweep.

For instance, the sweep may proceed downward from a position 311 z nearthe zenith, through the horizontal 300, toward and to the nearestdesired location 311 n to be monitored within the water; or insteadupward from such a closest desired location 311 n, past the horizontal300 and onward to the near-zenith position 311 z. A particularlypreferred form of the sweep does both—i. e. upward from the closestdesired location 311 n (FIG. 15) in the water in one direction, to andpast a zenith position 311 z, and terminating at the closest desiredwater location in the other direction.

This embodiment does not attempt to skip over ocean regions just belowthe horizon (even though they are too remote for extraction of usefulfloating-object information from the return). This is accordingly theembodiment that is most highly preferred—for its simplicity in controlof the outgoing pulses.

In particular, in addition to the absence of need for pulse interruptionper se, the pulse-projection system need not be precisely controlled toallow for pitching of the water craft—which erratically displaces thesystem relative to the horizon. Instead, all accounting for thedifferent spatial domains being explored can be performed after thefact, in an entry portion 354 of the analytical system as notedpreviously.

This portion of the analytical system locates the horizon. It thenautomatically switches 383 between the two analytical regimens 362-365and 366 for signal returns originating below and above the horizonrespectively.

At least a first approximation to locating the horizon 301 (FIGS. 14 and15) can be obtained very simply from information about the knownattitude of the LIDAR subsystem itself. Preferably, however, theanalytical system is programmed to refine this information based onactual analysis 354 of the optical returns, for in general the emittedfan beam 311 z, a, b, n is not accurately parallel to the horizon 301.

Despite the benefits of the continuous sweep 344 discussed above, theinvention nevertheless encompasses another preferred embodiment alsodiscussed above, though less highly preferred, in which the pulsing isinterrupted 345 to skip past objects in a narrow range of elevations atand just below the horizon. In this case the sweep itself may also bemade discontinuous, slewing more rapidly past the same region.

This embodiment 345 has an advantage: it avoids wasting time intervalsin which the system can be receiving and processing real data. Foreither preferred embodiment if desired the entire LIDAR module 331—orthe laser/optics elements 371, 373-376 and streak tube 378—may bemounted 371 in a gimbal box that is continuously servocontrolled to holdthe fan beam 311 accurately parallel to the horizon.

4. Overhead Marine Surveillance—Reducing Distortion

Use of airplanes and helicopters to detect and classify obstacles orweapons in the sea are significantly enhanced by an airborne LIDARsystem according to the present invention. Certain preferred embodimentsof this invention can provide undistorted, or less distorted, images ofunderwater objects when looking through the ocean surface from above.

Correct classification of objects, and in particular fewer false alarms,result from capturing both the distorted image of the underwater objectand the shape of the ocean surface above that object. With the measuredocean surface map, image-distorting effects at the ocean surface can beremoved from the image (without any a priori knowledge of the target) byimage-reconstruction algorithms.

In addition, the surface map contains an image of the surface. Usingthis image, the system can directly identify whitecaps and other surfacephenomena that are a significant source of false alarms.

The invention encompasses surface-finding algorithms that are used togenerate the ocean surface map. The surface-mapping algorithm can itselfbe tested using existing streak-tube LIDAR data, associated with knownsurface characteristics.

The invention can also produce an accurate area-coverage estimate atdifferent depths, i. e., a measurement of how well—how uniformly—thesystem is illuminating and imaging each water layer. The previouslymentioned gaps in coverage, due to wave focusing and defocusing of proberays, can now be estimated with much greater precision as to both sizeand number, and deterministic feedback thereby derived for the systemoperators.

As suggested above, the present invention includes a subsurface-imagereconstruction algorithm. This algorithm can be modeled to determinewhat spatial sampling and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are needed toenable improvement of the images in any given environment—combination ofweather, water type, etc.

Ideally, in any new system according to the invention, specification andfabrication of optics necessary to meet the requirements for spatialsampling and SNR are defined from the modeling efforts. The optics arethen straightforwardly integrated with an existing streak-tube LIDARsystem such as those provided by Arete Associates, of Sherman Oaks,Calif.

Ocean flights can then be performed over actual or (if furthervalidation is desired) realistic simulations of marine obstacles orweapons, and the image-reconstruction algorithm used to correct theimages. In accordance with the invention, performance—rather willy-nillyin prior-art systems—now conforms deterministically to the desiredcharacteristics built into the system by virtue of the advance modeling.

Ocean surface estimation and underwater image reconstruction—Morespecifically, prior airborne LIDAR systems, have demonstrated thatconsiderable degradation of images (FIG. 16) of objects, including smalltargets such as submerged weapons, can occur due to the distortingeffects of the ocean surface. This distortion can degrade theprobability of detection and classification, as well as the ability toreject false alarms.

The illustration represents a sequence of simulated images of an objectwith wave distortion. The actual size of the object is shown as a whitecircle in the upper-left image.

This series of views represents changes that occur in such an image inless than fifteen seconds. Parameters for this illustration included seastate 2 to 3, water Jerlov IB (very clear), object diameterapproximately one meter (35 inches) and reflectivity eight percent, atdepth of ten meters (33 feet).

Algorithms for reconstructing images distorted by ocean waves havealready been developed and demonstrated by others. Deleterious effectsof such distortions can be nearly eliminated, given knowledge of theocean surface position.

With existing airborne LIDAR systems, however, it is extremely difficultto capture ocean-surface height data that can be utilized for suchreconstructions. Time-resolved detectors may have adequate rangeresolution, but have very poor spatial resolution, while the converse istrue for range-gated camera systems. A streak-tube based LIDAR systemcan collect both the spatial and range data at resolutions necessary toperform the reconstruction.

When a streak-tube system is used in an airborne LIDAR configuration,preferably the pulsed laser-transmitter light is spread into awide-angle fan beam that forms a line image in the water. Thestreak-tube receiver has the ability to capture this line image everynanosecond (or faster) up to 1,024 times for a single laser pulse (withspatial sampling of up to 1,024 pixels).

Thus the streak-tube LIDAR system can measure the reflected light fromthe transmitter pulse every 15 cm (six inches) in air, or—allowing forthe different refractive index—11 cm (4.4 inches) in water. Reliableperformance of subpixel localization in range to less than 2½ cm (oneinch) has been demonstrated on underwater targets.

All this means that the streak tube can accurately characterize theheight of the ocean, with the resolution necessary to meaningful imagereconstruction. Naturally the system not only measures the ocean surfacebut also simultaneously images underwater objects.

In addition to image-distorting effects, unfortunately ocean waves alsoredistribute the light transmitted from—and also back to—an airbornesystem, creating gaps in coverage where there is no or littleillumination. Return from such regions is concomitantly absent or poor.

Not only is lighting deficient in the first instance, but in additionthe same optical detours that misdirect incident illumination also deterwhat little light does enter such regions from finding a path back tothe apparatus. Since the reflection is complete—at the speed of light -within microseconds of the illumination, and water waves do not movesignificantly within such short time intervals, both paths are disturbedby substantially the same pattern of ocean waves.

These effects are shown conceptually in FIG. 17. Here view (a) shows thezones where LIDAR data is degraded due to illumination gaps 107intimately adjoining a crest focus region 106—or ray mixing in the crestfocus region 106 itself (to which rays from the gaps 107 areredirected), or ray separation in a crest defocus region 108.

View (b) shows several hypothetical, potentially detectable articles101-105 positioned in relation to the identified regions in view (a).View (c) shows the corresponding images 101′-105′ seen from an airbornesystem for each of those numbered articles 101-105 respectively.

As the drawing shows, objects 101 in the convergingray region above thecrest focus 106 produce distorted images 101′. As shown, theseordinarily appear enlarged along the dimension or dimensions of the rayconvergence.

The same is true of objects 105 near a lower crest focus (notillustrated, off the bottom of view [b])—even though the rays are notconverging strongly, and although objects 102 in higher, near-surfaceregions of the same rays with the same only-moderate convergence yieldreasonably accurate images 102′.

Objects 103 in or immediately below the crest focus may form broken-upimage fragments 103′. Objects 104 in regions of strongly diverging raysform images—if at all - that are reduced along the direction ordirections of ray divergence.

As will now be clear, a given object may produce an image that is inprinciple enlarged in one direction but reduced, fragmented or eventotally absent in another. Analogous results are obtained from amast-mounted system.

As noted earlier in this document, current airborne LIDAR systems haveno capacity to detect or correct for these problems. This failing can beregarded as dual:

-   -   (1) the basic problem of image distortion itself, which can be        greatly improved by image reconstruction in accordance with the        present invention, and    -   (2) gaps and regions 107, 108 of low SNR, which the present        invention cannot eliminate.        As to the second category, after a single LIDAR pass over the        ocean surface, data for the corresponding zones 107, 108 is        simply missing or inadequate. It is important to recognize that        the missing data are missing physically, and cannot be supplied        by any mere stratagem of mathematics, data analysis or        information recovery.

Filling in these gaps or near-gaps, in turn, unavoidably requiresmultiple passes over the same area; this is the only way to obtain fullcoverage. What the present invention can do, however, is characterizeand statistically quantify the aaps.

The result is a measurement of specifically how many passes should bemade, under the particular circumstances of sea state, water type,bottom depth etc. This innovative measurement isnear-deterministic—namely, systematic and with a firm statistical basis,

FIG. 18 shows a single frame of STIL data in which both the oceansurface 401 and the bottom are visible. This frame shows the strongsignatures 401, 404 from the water surface and water volumerespectively, as well as the return 403 from the bottom. The evidentconfusion as between these two components will be discussed shortly.(The seeming curvature in the surface is caused by the increase inlateral range due to larger nadir angles.)

The water surface is shown overexposed. The 30 to 60 cm (one- totwo-foot) variation of the waves is difficult to see visually, as can beappreciated from the smallness of the coral head signature 402—the coralstructure itself actually being almost 4 m (12 feet) tall.

Nevertheless the wave variation can be retrieved in data analysis. Infact, surface localization—as well as the underwater localizationmentioned above—in range to 2½ cm (one inch) has been demonstrated withsimilar ocean data.

By measuring and reconstructing the surface, and by measuring theposition and depth of the light reflected from the target in thedistorted image, the undistorted object can be reconstructed. Inaddition to the improvement in imaging, detection and classification,this surface detection and mapping capability as noted above has otheradvantages: (1) coverage estimate at depth, (2) direct sea-statemeasurement, and (3) false-alarm mitigation.

Coverage estimate at depth: Because the system reconstructs the surface,the positions of absent data or low-SNR gaps 107, 108 (FIG. 17) aredeterministically known in all three dimensions.

Again, this does not mean that it is possible to know what was in thosegaps, but the system can provide a precise measurement of how much ofthe water volume was sampled at appropriate SNR. Thus, the requirementfor additional passes over an area can be quantitatively defined by thesensor itself, as opposed to depending on model-based statisticalcoverage estimates, which in turn is dependent on an estimate of the seastate.

Direct sea-state measurement: The streak-tube system can make a directmeasurement of the sea state. These data can be provided to all involvedparties that are dependent on this—ranging from amphibious landingforces to recreational small-boat operators.

False-alarm mitigation: The system can also make an image of thesurface. This image can bemused to examine surface objects, such aswhitecaps, that sometimes resemble weapons and thereby represent asignificant source of false alarms in existing LIDAR systems.

Best mode of practicing the invention—As the foregoing discussionssuggest, ideal results in the practice of the present invention dictatethat system implementers follow a regimen generally structured withthese stages:

(1) modeling and simulation 611-618, 623-625 of the image-reconstructionand surface-mapping algorithms which the implementers intend to use, toverify their performance;

(2) adaptation 621 of existing streak-tube LIDAR hardware to meet theresolution requirements; and (3) ocean flight tests 626-628 overrealistic targets to confirm actual performance in the field.

Those skilled in this art will appreciate that the first two stages maybe started at the same time. In due course, however, the completion ofthe hardware adaptation 621—i. e., the second stage—should be deferreduntil system resolution specifications have been well establishedthrough the resolution-determining simulations 611-616, and preferablyalso the robustness validation 617-618, in the first stage.

Algorithm modeling and simulation—Ocean-optics simulation 611 should beemployed first to create distorted images (FIG. 16) of well-definedunderwater target surfaces. In this effort it is critical to provide notonly simple, straightforward surfaces and viewing conditions but also avariety of more-challenging combinations of simulated target andsimulated environment.

For example, it is advisable to create distorted images for differentsea states, water clarity, target depths, and sensor noise. (Once thealgorithm is operational, as noted earlier its robustness should bedetermined 617 through varying the spatial resolution of the surface mapand the amount of noise.)

Such methodology stretches out the figures of merit for simulated systemperformance over a range of values. The relationship between systemperformances under various conditions can then be studied and understoodmost meaningfully. The reconstruction algorithm can then be run andevaluated 615-616 very objectively, since the well-defined input (from611) to the image simulator can be compared 616 directly with the outputfrom the reconstruction.

The robustness validation at 617 determines the effects upon the outputimage of variation in resolution and noise in the assumed surface map.Rigorous subjection of the system to and beyond known real-life extremesof seasurface condition is essential at this point.

The image-reconstruction algorithm itself need not follow any specificform, other than a systematic application 614 of Snell's law in tracingof rays through the visible water surface to correctly define thepositions of objects with the confusing effects of the water surfaceremoved. A satisfactory starting point 613 for the algorithm is any ofthe operationally sound prior-art algorithms (see discussionsfollowing), modified in a straightforward way to perform these raytracings.

This effort can be guided by the principles set forth in the previouslymentioned patent U.S. Pat. No. 5,528,493, for observation of vessels andlandmarks from a submerged station, as well as other technicalliterature that is discussed below. A pivotal difference, however, isthat for present purposes it is not necessary to at first crudelyestimate and then iteratively, dynamically refine a mathematicalrepresentation of the instantaneous sea surface.

Instead, as pointed out earlier, that surface is simply measureddirectly by ranging at each pixel—and it is this capability which is theobject of the second-algorithm development 623. Therefore all theiterative dynamic-development portions of the process discussed in the'493 patent may be simply omitted 624 from the algorithm used in thepresent invention.

With the second algorithm specified 623 and coded, it is verified 625,as described above, against a known surface used in this simulation.This later validation should confirm the insensitivity of the system tospatial resolution and noise in the surface-position estimate,previously verified through variation 617-618 in verification of thefirst algorithm.

The latter portions of at least the first-algorithm modeling are then,as illustrated, used to derive 621 the resolution requirements for thehardware. Further benefit, however, can be obtained by working throughthe second, surface-mapping algorithm development 623-625 beforefinalizing the optical specifications.

Development 623 of the surface-mapping algorithm too can be based onprior working systems (see discussion below)—but omitting thesurface-determination iterations needed in those earlier efforts. Thissecond algorithm can be tested 625 preliminarily using existing STILdata collected for an ocean patch, but eventually should becrosscompared 626, 628 using measurement of at least a small surfacethat is independently known.

Hardware adaptation—To test the surface reconstruction algorithm anexisting streak-tube LIDAR system is best employed. The only hardwarelikely to require modification 621 is the optical system for thetransmitter and receiver, to provide the necessary spatial resolution onthe water surface. Given the resolution specification, these optics inturn are straightforwardly specified, fabricated and integrated with theotherwise-conventional hardware.

Flight performance verification—The streak-tube LIDAR system is compactand lightweight, and readily mounted in an aircraft—a small fixed-wingaircraft is entirely adequate. The system is then flown 626 over theocean, preferably near a coastline where varying benthic depth canprovide many naturally occurring test characteristics.

Because it is difficult to get good “ground truth” on the ocean surfaceheight, it is helpful to place 627 known test objects in the water atdifferent, but well-surveyed or otherwise well-defined, depths. One kindof target advantageously included in such tests is a large gridstructure, preferably at least roughly six meters (twenty feet) in eachdirection.

If desired to more directly test the surface-mapping stage, as notedabove an artificial strongly contoured surface may be constructed andemplaned 628 the LIDAR system flown over that surface—i. e., with thesurface exposed in the air. The ability of the system to measure andreconstruct the surface is estimated from the quality of thereconstructed object images.

Development benchmarks—It may be appropriate to regard a skilled personin this field as a senior technician in the several specialties requiredto specify, build and implement the invention—or, more properly, a teamof such specialized technicians. In order to enable such a hypotheticalteam to practice the invention, extensive detailed practical instructionbelieved to be at seniortechnician level is incorporated into thisdocument.

In following the guidelines described above, it is important torecognize that certain performance elements are key. Careful attentionshould be devoted to these two key elements:

-   -   being certain that the ocean-surface map created from the        airborne STIL data is accurate, and    -   being certain that the spatial resolution that is specified into        the system is adequate, when used to create the surface map, to        yield satisfactory images of submerged objects.

As will now be clear, a system may be put into operation but may notperform satisfactorily even though it creates a surface map, and even ifthe map is accurate, if the system does not adequately resolve adjacentelements of the ocean surface—or resolve the continuum of heights of thesurface. The measured positions and heights are inserted into the raytracing function, and the only real test of their adequacy is whetherthe ray tracing produces correct pictures of submerged objects.

Conversely, even if an operating system gives higspatial resolution inall three dimensions, if the measurements in those dimensions areimprecise or inaccurate then again the ray-tracing results will bedeficient. For these reasons, adherence to the three-stage scheduleprescribed above is important to achievement of satisfactoryperformance—without iteration of major specification steps.

Secondarily, the surface-finding algorithm should be robust, asvariations in both atmospheric and ocean conditions can be extreme. Thegoal is nearly distortion-free images over as much as possible of thefull range of such conditions.

Some additional advanced technical hurdles, and their solutions, aredetailed below.

Creating the ocean surface map—Although correction for refractivedistortion in airborne marine surveillance has not been attemptedheretofore, some related fields of study have produced useful data. Forexample robust algorithms are known for finding the location ofLambertian surfaces (i. e., surfaces that scatter light in alldirections, such as sand and dirt).

The ocean surface, however, is unlike these surfaces. In particular, itis a specular reflector, which leads to large variations of the returnedlight 401 (FIG. 21) depending on the angle of a wave—or elementalsurface portions of a wave—with respect to the incident light.

In addition to this specular reflectance 401, the ocean reflects light404 from the molecules and particles within the volume (i. e., watervolume backscatter). The specular return 401, called “glints”, can varyover several orders of magnitude and can be either much larger or muchsmaller than the volume backscatter return 404.

The difficulty that these two different returns cause in estimating thesurface position is that the volume backscatter return 404 reaches itspeak value (FIG. 20) only after the laser pulse is entirely within thewater volume, while the glint signal 401 reaches its peak when the peakof the pulse arrives at the water surface (see FIG. 20).

The distance between these two peaks 401, 404 is on the order of thewidth of the laser pulse. This width, for a typical 4—to 5-nanosecondlaser, corresponds to more than a half meter (20 inches) in positiondifference.

This is uncertainty in ocean-surface position at each point in the fieldof view—not merely the uncertainty in position of a submerged object.Considered as an indeterminacy in individual surface-height values, ahalf meter is a huge distance. Such uncertainty would render futile anyeffort to establish a surface-height map for use in reconstructingundersea images.

Fortunately the data and exploratory algorithms developed by Guenther'sgroup, mentioned earlier, can be used in generating a robustsurface-finding algorithm able to differentiate between glints andvolume backscatter. The generated algorithm can provide a good surfacemap from each laser pulse, or each succession of pulses.

The resultant surface-mapping algorithm is then best applied to existingSTIL data taken during other tests. These data (e. g. FIG. 21) haverelatively coarse resolution, 15 to 60 cm (6″ to 2′) per pixel, and noreference for ground truth. Nevertheless, working with these dataprovides good insight into discrimination of volume backscatter fromglint.

To demonstrate that an area coverage rate adequate for a fleet system isachievable, adequate spatial resolution for performing imagereconstruction must be maintained while both imaging a reasonably wideswath and holding a reasonable airspeed. These constraints must be addedto those based on the previously mentioned requirements developed fromthe modeling, for specification and fabrication of the optical system.

Creating undistorted images—In the previously mentioned U.S. Pat. No.5,528,493, the above-surface scene is reconstructed iteratively,starting from assumptions about some reference object such as the sun.Analogously in the work of Schmalz, as noted earlier the subsurfaceimage is reconstructed in an iterative fashion, starting withassumptions about the depth of the object.

Thus, as suggested in the discussion of related art, what might becalled “the trick” is in knowing the instantaneous shape of a distortingsurface that is constantly changing. This perpetual shifting or movingis what leads to the requirement for iteration, in the related earlierefforts.

A LIDAR system, however, directly measures the distance from surface toobject. Therefore, once the surface map is generated, the reconstructionalgorithm is a deterministic, noniterative ray-tracing program.

The complete algorithm proceeds in simple steps: from a known positionof the LIDAR subsystem 12 (FIG. 22), fanbeam pulses probe the wavesurface 16. For each pixel 17′ the three-dimensional orientation of acorresponding ray 31′ is known by the apparatus inherently.

The distance to the surface along the ray 31′ is found by analysis ofthe pulse returns. Combined with the observing position and rayorientation, the system computer straightforwardly obtains thethree-dimensional position of the pixel 17′.

The system likewise analyzes all the return delays for the surface,pixel by pixel, to construct a three-dimensional map of the surface 16.Simple differentiation of this surface map yields the slope of thesurface at each pixel 17′—i. e., the three-dimensional orientation ofthe tangent plane t and the corresponding normal line 19.

Given the known angle φ₁ at which the incident ray 31′ lies to thenormal 19, Snell's law yields directly the angle φ₂ (in threedimensions) at which the refracted ray 21′ lies to the same normal 19,namely—sin φ₂ =n sin φ₁,or φ₂ =sin⁻¹(n sin φ₁)in which n is the index of refraction for the water. With this angle nowknown, the system has the true disposition 21′ of the ray.

Now the system can also take into account the further return delay to anapparent object point 22 a′ seen behind the same pixel 17′. Althoughthat apparent point 22 a′ is apparently positioned along the apparent orrectilinear extension 21 a to the same ray 31′, it is known to lieinstead along the refracted, true ray disposition 21′.

The further return delay, considered in conjunction with the speed oflight within the water, yields the additional range or distance withinthe water to the true object point 22′. This completes the truecoordinates, relative to the observation apparatus 12, of that point22′—so that in effect the apparatus has the actual bearings and lengthof a vector 37 from the observation platform directly to the true point22′.

Given the instantaneous position and orientation of the platform, as forexample through use of the Global Positioning System, the absolutecoordinates of the true point 22′ follow directly. Again, no iterationis required to find either the three-dimensional surface map or theobject depth, as in the '493 patent and the Schmalz method respectively.

This algorithm accordingly runs very quickly. It is also straightforwardto implement in a real-time computing system, suitable for objectmonitoring in routine surfacecraft operations.

Furthermore no dual-base triangulation is required, since the presentinvention—unlike the system of the '493 patent—is capable of determiningrange as well as bearing, from a single observation station, for eachobject point. It is this which enables the invention to be operated froma single small, fixed-wing aircraft.

5. Intensity Equalization for a Fan Beam

The goal is to produce a nearly one-dimensional fan beam 711 (FIG. 23)from an incident laser beam 709 of conventional character, i. e., mosttypically of a very generally circular cross-sectional envelope, butroughly Gaussian across that section. As noted earlier, however, laserbeams typically have both hot (bright) spots and dark specks within thebeam cross-section—and these features as well as the overall energydistribution and indeed the effective centerline of the beam itself varygreatly during pulsed operation.

Preferred embodiments of the present invention (1) produce a fan beam ofprescribed angular width independent of size, energy distribution, andposition of the input laser beam 709; (2) enable shaping of the energydistribution across the fan beam; and as a kind of bonus also (3)homogenize the laser beam to remove any nonuniform spatial energydistributions in the laser beam.

The input laser beam 709 is incident on an array 721 of small lenses722, which in this document are sometimes called “lenslets”. For simpleand easy of discussion, this document refers to the individual elements722 as “cylindrical” but it is to be understood that this term refers toelements that are not truly cylindrical.

First, they might more precisely be termed “semicylindrical” or“planocylindrical” since they are not full rods but only shaped intogenerally cylindrical forms at one side (the output side), as thedrawing shows. Second, for reasons that will become clear shortly theirsurfaces are preferably not any segments of circular cylinders.

Rather they are preferably segments of “cylinders” in the classical,general geometrical sense of being loci of a projection of a planecontour that is not circular. For many applications, right-circularplanocylindrical lenslets serve well, and it is only as a matter ofpreference for more highly demanding applications that noncircular formsare employed.

The input laser beam or other source beam 709 should be large enough tocover several lens elements 722. After the laser beam passes through thelens array 721, the spatial profile of the laser beam is homogenized bythe mixing of the light after the array.

Each of the lenslets 722 expands the portion of the beam incident on it.Since the beam 709 is incident on many lenslets, there is considerableaveraging in the angular distribution leaving the lens array.

Because the lenslets are overfilled with illumination, the numericalaperture of the lenses defines the angular divergence θ—here the fanhalf-angle—of the light. The sine of the fan half-angle equals thenumerical aperture NA, which in turn is established by the relationshipbetween the focal properties of each lenslet surface and the physicalaperture.

The only dependencies of this system upon the light itself are inrelation to wavelength and collimation, both properties that arewell-behaved in laser beams. These facts provide a key strength of theinvention—namely, that the divergence of the light is independent of thesize or energy distribution of the laser beam 709 and depends only onthe numerical aperture of the lens.

FIG. 24 illustrates one lens in an array of positive cylindricallenslets. The array may be fabricated either by casting or otherwiseforming a unitary article as suggested by the illustration, or byforming individual lenslet elements and placing them side by side.

Each lenslet 722 nominally produces a line focus 723 of the input laserbeam 709 after (i. e., downstream of) the lenslet. The term “nominally”appears here because, as is well known, common lenses are subject tospherical—or in the present environment, cylindrical—aberration.

Such aberration causes the focal position, as seen in section, to be aregion or zone . . . 723-724 . . . , rather than a geometrical point orline. As the drawing suggests, the greatest angular divergence occursfor input rays that pass along the outside edge of the lens, andprogressively tighter divergence angles arising from rays 727, 728 thattraverse the lens successively closer to the optical axis 725.

At first glance it may appear desirable to prepare a lens that offersmore-consistent ray divergence—i. e., a so-called “aplanatic” lens thatis at least partially corrected for cylindrical aberration. Such acorrection will be assumed in the first part of the analysis whichfollows shortly below (FIG. 26).

As will be seen, however, ray mixing from different lenslets has theeffect of greatly reducing the importance of angular consistency withinthe fan produced by each lenslet considered individually. Furthermore,for present purposes, specification of surfaces for a high degree ofangular consistency has certain drawbacks.

One such drawback is that inconsistent divergence angles can beexploited to adjust the angular energy distribution of the overallbeam—to compensate for the secant effects discussed in an earliersection of this document. That exploitation will be discussed below.

Another potential drawback of highly consistent divergence angle is thatall the optical energy passes through the foci of the several lenslets.In other words the lenslets form real images of the collimated inputbeam, and all the energy of the input beam passes through the array ofthese images.

A highly compensated system therefore concentrates in a minute, roughlyplanar zone—defined by the array of line foci of the severallenslets—all the power of the source beam. For good SNR inocean-surveillance applications a very high-power beam is desirable;hence extraordinarily high energy densities arise at the focal sheet.

Such enormous concentrations of energy can lead to air breakdown andchaotic consequences. For high-power applications as mentioned earlieran array 721 n of negative cylindrical lenslets 722 n (FIG. 25) isbetter used. Each negative lenslet 722 n can be made to produce arespective virtual image 723 v rather than a real line image and therebyavoid the air-breakdown problem.

In a corrected lens the angle θ (FIG. 26) of a refracted ray leaving thelens is related to the height y of the ray above the optical axis 725.The relationship may be expressed by the following integral.$\begin{matrix}{y = {\int_{0}^{\theta}{{w(\alpha)}{\mathbb{d}\alpha}}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

By taking derivatives of Eq. (1) and multiplying by the light irradianceincident on the lens, we obtain:dΦ=Edy=Ew(θ)dθ  (2)where dΦ is the light flux contained in the differential height elementand E is the irradiance (one-dimensional). It follows that the righthand side of Eq. (2) represents the amount of energy in the differentialangle element.

Thus, the function w(θ) defines the angular weighting of the energydistribution. For an aplanatic lens, the relationship between the rayheight and the refracted angle is given by—y=f sinθ  (3)Thus, the angular weighting function, the derivative of sin(θ), isproportional to cos(θ). Most lenses, however, are not truly aplanatic.

Optical aberrations cause the distribution to vary from this ideal case.In fact, as predicted above, one may intentionally modify the shape ofthe lens surface to introduce “aberrations” to shape the light-intensityprofile.

For a given lens, the angular weight function can be approximated fromgeometrical ray-tracing data by $\begin{matrix}{{w(\theta)} \cong {\frac{\Delta\quad y}{\Delta\theta}.}} & (4)\end{matrix}$This expression is very useful for specifying and analyzing the angularweighting function of an optical lens, using a lens specificationprogram.

FIG. 27 shows a lens optimized to increase the irradiance at the edge ofthe fan beam—perceptible in the drawing in terms of the density of rays726, 727 c, 728 c—to four times that at the center of the fan beam. Thelens was optimized by varying the surface profile 722 c of therefracting lens surface.

FIG. 28 illustrates the angular ray distribution far from the lens.Again, the progressively higher ray density 726, 727 c at the edge ofthe field of view corresponds to higher energy density than does thedensity 727 c, 728 c progressively closer to the axis 725.

Since laser light is coherent, when a laser source is to be useddiffraction effects must be considered. The lens array behavesrefractively, of course, but because it is periodic (as illustrated inFIG. 23) also behaves as a diffraction grating.

Thus the collimated light incident on the lens array is split into anumber of diffracted beams. To adequately allow for these diffractioneffects, diffraction theory must be taken into account.

The grating equation for normal incidence on the grating is given by:$\begin{matrix}{{{\sin\left( \theta_{m} \right)} = \frac{\lambda\quad m}{D}},} & (5)\end{matrix}$where θ_(m) is the diffracted angle for the m^(th) order, and D is thewidth of the lens element. The numerical aperture NA of the lens definesthe largest value of the left-hand side of Eq. (5); therefore we canrewrite the equation to give the total number N of diffracted ordersacross the full width of the fan beam as follows. $\begin{matrix}{N = \frac{2{DNA}}{\lambda}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

In most applications of present interest, it is preferable that thenumber N of diffracted orders across the fan beam be sufficient toensure that adjacent orders overlap and thereby render the fan beameffectively continuous. Otherwise the fan degenerates to a series ofseparated spots of light, which in some applications leavesunilluminated some regions of interest.

On the other hand, it will be understood by those skilled in the fieldthat the invention encompasses deliberate introduction of suchdegeneracy and separation. In this regard the invention contemplatesthat some applications are advantageously provided with unilluminated orlittle-illuminated mesne positions along such a discontinuous fanpattern.

It will be understood that the foregoing disclosure is intended to bemerely exemplary, and not to limit the scope of the invention—which isto be determined by reference to the appended claims.

1. A system for detecting objects from an elevated position; said systemcomprising: a LIDAR subsystem, mounted at such elevated position, foremitting thin fan-beam light pulses at a shallow angle, and fordetecting reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses at a like shallowangle; and a streak-tube subsystem for imaging successive reflectedfan-beam pulse portions.
 2. The system of claim 1, particularly fordetecting such objects that are mines or obstacles from such an elevatedposition on a craft, and wherein: the shallow angle is a vertical anglethat is defined either relative to the horizontal, or relative to suchcraft or a path of such craft.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein: thestreak-tube subsystem comprises a display screen; and the streak-tubesubsystem images successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions atcorresponding successive positions on the screen, to form on the screena representation of such objects as a function of distance from thecraft.
 4. The system of claim 1, further comprising: a mast or highbridge on such craft, for providing such elevated position for mountingof the LIDAR subsystem.
 5. The system of claim 4, further comprising:such craft.
 6. The system of claim 1, particularly for use in detectingobjects submerged near a water craft, and wherein: the shallow angleapproximates grazing incidence with a water surface near the craft. 7.The system of claim 6, wherein: the thin fan beam illuminates a swath onthe order of sixty centimeters (two feet) wide, measured generally inthe propagation direction along the water surface.
 8. The system ofclaim 1, wherein: the shallow angle is in a range of approximately oneto fifteen degrees.
 9. The system of claim 1, wherein: the shallow angleis in a range of approximately two to ten degrees.
 10. The system ofclaim 1, wherein: the shallow angle is roughly five degrees.
 11. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein: the thin fan beam is on the order of 2.5centimeters (one inch) thick.
 12. The system of claim 1, furthercomprising: means for applying a correction for energy reduction nearlateral ends of the fan beam.
 13. The system of claim 12, wherein: thecorrection-applying means comprise a lenslet array.
 14. The system ofclaim 1, further comprising: means for applying a correction for deptherrors arising from retardation near lateral ends of the fan beam. 15.The system of claim 14, wherein: the correction-applying means comprisesoftware operation in an image analytical stage.
 16. A system fordetecting objects near a water craft; said system comprising: a LIDARsubsystem, mounted to the water craft at an elevated position, foremitting thin fan-beam light pulses at a shallow angle, and fordetecting reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses at a like shallowangle; and means for imaging successive reflected fan-beam pulseportions.
 17. The system of claim 16, wherein: the imaging meanscomprise a display screen; and the imaging means comprise means forimaging successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions at correspondingsuccessive positions on the screen, to form on the screen arepresentation of such objects as a function of distance from the watercraft.
 18. The system of claim 17, particularly for use in a craft thatis in motion; and wherein: the imaging means further comprise means forscrolling the successive lines generally synchronously with such motion.19. The system of claim 16, further comprising: a mast or high bridge onsuch water craft, for providing such elevated position for mounting ofthe LIDAR subsystem.
 20. The system of claim 19, further comprising:such water craft.
 21. The system of claim 16, particularly for use indetecting objects submerged near the water craft, and wherein: theshallow angle approximates grazing incidence with a water surface nearthe craft.
 22. The system of claim 16, wherein: the shallow angle is ina range of approximately one to fifteen degrees.
 23. The system of claim16, wherein: the shallow angle is in a range of approximately two to tendegrees.
 24. The system of claim 16, wherein: the shallow angle isroughly five degrees.
 25. The system of claim 16, wherein: the thin fanbeam is on the order of 2.5 centimeters (one inch) thick.
 26. The systemof claim 25, wherein: the thin fan beam illuminates a swath on the orderof sixty centimeters (two feet) wide, measured generally in thepropagation direction along a water surface.
 27. A system for detectingobjects near a water craft; said system comprising: means, mounted tothe water craft at an elevated position, for emitting thin fan-beamlight pulses at a shallow angle, and for detecting reflected portions ofthe fan-beam pulses at a like shallow angle; and a streak-tube subsystemfor imaging successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions.
 28. The systemof claim 27, wherein: the imaging means comprise a display screen; andthe imaging means image successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions atcorresponding successive positions on the screen, to form on the screena representation of such objects as a function of distance from thewater craft.
 29. The system of claim 27, further comprising: a mast orhigh bridge on such water craft, for providing such elevated positionfor mounting of the emitting and detecting means.
 30. The system ofclaim 29, further comprising: such water craft.
 31. The system of claim27, particularly for use in detecting objects submerged near the watercraft, and wherein: the shallow angle approximates grazing incidencewith a water surface near the craft.
 32. A system for detecting objectsnear a water craft; said system comprising: a LIDAR subsystem, mountedto such craft, for emitting thin fan-beam light pulses toward suchobjects and for detecting reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses; andmeans for imaging successive reflected fan-beam pulse portions in a waythat tightly localizes reflection from a water surface near such objectsto facilitate detection of such objects despite proximity to the watersurface.
 33. The system of claim 32, wherein: the successivereflected-pulse-portion imaging means comprise: a display screen, andmeans for displaying successive reflected pulseportion images atsuccessive different portions of the screen; and the imaging means imagethe surface reflection from water, near such objects, in a narrow rangeof closely adjacent portions of the screen.
 34. A system for detectingobjects submerged, or partially submerged, relative to a water surface;said detecting system comprising: a LIDAR subsystem emitting thinfan-beam light pulses from above such water surface toward such objectsand detecting reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses; and means foranalyzing the reflected pulse portions to determine water-surfaceorientations and therefrom derive submerged-object images corrected forrefractive distortion.
 35. The system of claim 34, wherein the analyzingmeans comprise: means for using precise range resolution of thereflected pulse portions to determine said water-surface orientations;and means for applying Snell's Law in conjunction with the determinedwater-surface orientations to develop corrections for refraction at suchwater surface.
 36. The system of claim 34, wherein: the LIDAR subsystemcomprises a deflection device sweeping a succession of the thin fan-beamlight pulses across such objects and such water surface rapidly enoughto substantially capture all said water-surface orientations in aconsistent common configuration.
 37. The system of claim 36,particularly for detecting such objects near a water craft; and wherein:the LIDAR subsystem is mounted to such craft; and the deflection deviceoperates cyclically.
 38. The system of claim 34, wherein: the LIDARsubsystem is carried along over the water surface in a generallyprogressive motion defining a succession of adjacent or overlappingmeasurement swaths; and the fan-beam pulses are repeated rapidly enoughto capture water-surface orientations in a nearly consistent commonconfiguration in adjacent or overlapping swaths.
 39. A method ofimplementing a LIDAR system that corrects for refraction in LIDARimaging through waves in a water surface; said method comprising thesteps of: defining simulated images of submerged objects as seen throughwaves in a water surface with a LIDAR system; preparing an algorithm forapplying a three-dimensional image of the water surface in refractivecorrection of LIDAR imaging through waves; modeling application of thealgorithm to the simulated images with an assumed or actualthree-dimensional image of the water surface to determine requirementsof range and pixel resolution for successful operation of the LIDARsystem; and based upon the determined range and pixel resolutionrequirements, specifying optics for the LIDAR system.
 40. The system ofclaim 39, further comprising the steps of: preparing a second algorithmfor capturing a three-dimensional image of the water surface based onranging data obtained with a LIDAR system over a generally horizontalgrid of positions; and modeling application of the second algorithm toactual ranging data obtained with a LIDAR system to verify adequateperformance of the second algorithm as to resolution in the rangingdirection and in horizontal grid directions.
 41. A system for detectingobjects from an elevated position; said system comprising: ascanning-spot LIDAR subsystem, mounted at such elevated position, foremitting a series of narrow light pulses at a shallow angle andsuccessively displaced in an arc, and for repeating said emitting toform successive arcs, and for detecting reflected portions of the pulsesat a like shallow angle; and a streak-tube subsystem for imagingreflected pulse patterns from said successive arcs, as successive lineson a display screen.
 42. The system of claim 41, particularly for use ina craft that is in motion; and wherein: the streak-tube subsystemfurther comprises means for scrolling the successive lines generallysynchronously with such motion.
 43. A system for detecting small exposedobjects such as floating debris, at ranges on the order of tens ofkilometers; said system comprising: a LIDAR subsystem for emittingnearly horizontal, thin fan-beam light pulses to illuminate such exposedobjects at ranges on the order of tens of kilometers, and for detectingnearly horizontal reflected portions of the fan-beam pulses returnedfrom such exposed objects; and a streak-tube subsystem for imagingsuccessive reflected fan-beam pulse portions.
 44. The system of claim43, wherein: the light pulses are eye-safe.
 45. The system of claim 44,wherein: the light pulses are in the near infrared.
 46. The system ofclaim 45, wherein: the light pulses are at a wavelength of approximately1.54 microns.
 47. A landing-aid system for use in facilitating aircraftlandings on an aircraft carrier; said system comprising: a LIDARsubsystem, mounted to such aircraft carrier, for emitting light pulsesto illuminate such aircraft, and for detecting reflected portions of thepulses returned from such aircraft; and a streak-tube subsystem forimaging successive reflected pulse portions.
 48. The system of claim 47,wherein: the light pulses are eye-safe.
 49. The system of claim 48,wherein: the light pulses are in the near infrared.
 50. The system ofclaim 49, wherein: the light pulses are at a wavelength of approximately1.54 microns.
 51. The system of claim 47, further comprising: means,responsive to the streak-tube subsystem, for providing real-timemeasurement of position of such aircraft relative to a desired approachpath.
 52. The system of claim 47, further comprising: means, responsiveto the streak-tube subsystem, for providing real-time measurement ofrange of such aircraft relative to such aircraft carrier.
 53. The systemof claim 47, further comprising: means, responsive to the streak-tubesubsystem, for providing real-time measurement of range-rate of suchaircraft relative to a desired approach path.
 54. An integrated systemfor detecting objects submerged, or partially submerged, relative to awater surface near a water craft and also for detecting airborneobjects; said system comprising: a LIDAR subsystem, mounted to suchcraft, emitting thin fan-beam light pulses from above such water surfacetoward such submerged, or partially submerged, objects and alsoexclusively toward such airborne objects and for detecting reflectedportions of the fan-beam pulses; first means for analyzing the reflectedand detected portions of pulses emitted toward such submerged, orpartially submerged, objects to determine water-surface orientations andtherefrom derive submerged-object images corrected for refractivedistortion; and second means for separately analyzing the reflected anddetected portions of pulses emitted toward such airborne objectsexclusively, to therefrom derive airborneobject images.
 55. Theintegrated system of claim 54, wherein: the first analyzing means alsorecognize and image airborne objects that reflect portions of pulsesemitted toward such submerged, or partially submerged, objects.
 56. Theintegrated system of claim 54, wherein: the LIDAR subsystem comprisesmeans for sweeping a sequence of the light pulses across such submerged,or partially submerged, objects and such airborne objects in asubstantially continuous succession.
 57. The integrated system of claim54, wherein: the LIDAR subsystem comprises means for sweeping a sequenceof the light pulses across such submerged, or partially submerged,objects and such airborne objects in a succession that is interrupted toskip past objects in a narrow range of elevations at and just below thehorizon.
 58. A LIDAR system for imaging objects; said LIDAR systemcomprising: a pulsed light source; an array of lenslets receiving lightpulses from the source and forming therefrom a pulsed fan-shaped beam ofthe light for projection toward such objects to be imaged; lightdetectors receiving portions of said pulsed fanshaped beam reflectedfrom such objects and developing corresponding image signals in responseto the reflected portions; and means for analyzing the signals todetermine characteristics of such objects or to display successiveimages of such objects.
 59. The LIDAR system of claim 58, wherein: theanalyzing means comprise a streak tube for generating the images. 60.The LIDAR system of claim 59, wherein: the array of lenslets, in formingthe fan-shaped beam, modifies the angular distribution of light withrespect to a long cross-sectional dimension of the fan shape.
 61. TheLIDAR system of claim 59, wherein: the array of lenslets increases theenergy at lateral extremes of the fan shape.
 62. The LIDAR system ofclaim 58, wherein: the light source is a laser.
 63. The LIDAR system ofclaim 58, wherein: the array produces an angular distribution w(θ) ofenergy, which is a desired distribution; and small height increments Δyof lenslet surfaces in the array are shaped in relation to correspondingsmall angular increments Δθ substantially by the relation Δy/Δθ=w(θ).64. The LIDAR system of claim 63, wherein: the surfaces are shaped byphotolithography.
 65. The LIDAR system of claim 58, wherein: refractiveand diffractive characteristics of the array are matched to enhanceenergy efficiency at desired illumination angles.
 66. A light-projectionsystem comprising: a light source; an array of lenslets receiving lightfrom the source and forming therefrom a fan-shaped beam of the light forprojection toward such objects; and wherein said lenslets have surfacesthat modify the angular distribution of light with respect to a longcross-sectional dimension of the fan shape; and the array of lensletsincreases the energy at lateral extremes of the fan shape.
 67. The LIDARsystem of claim 66, wherein: the light source is a laser.
 68. The LIDARsystem of claim 66, wherein: the array produces an angular distributionw(θ) of energy, which is a desired distribution; and small heightincrements Δy of lenslet surfaces in the array are shaped in relation tocorresponding small angular increments Δθ by the relation Δy/Δθ=w(θ).69. The LIDAR system of claim 66, wherein: the surfaces are shaped byphotolithography.
 70. The LIDAR system of claim 66, wherein: refractiveand diffractive characteristics of the array are matched to enhanceenergy efficiency at desired angles.
 71. The system of claim 66, furthercomprising: light detectors for receiving portions of said pulsedfan-shaped beam reflected from such objects and developing correspondingimage signals in response to the reflected fan-shaped beam.
 72. Alight-projection system comprising: a light source; an array of lensletsreceiving light from the source and forming therefrom a fan-shaped beamof the light for projection; and wherein said lenslets have refractivecharacteristics; said array of lenslets has diffractive characteristics;and the refractive and diffractive characteristics are matched forperformance at specified projection angles.
 73. A light-projectionsystem comprising: a high-power light source; an array of negativecylindrical lenslets receiving light from the source and formingtherefrom a fan-shaped beam of the light for projection; and whereinsaid negative cylindrical lenslets form virtual line images, rather thanreal high-power images, of the source; and air breakdown is avoided byabsence of real high-power images of the source.